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... ... @@ -1,107 +1,0 @@ 1 -=1AC – Arctic FNPP= 2 - 3 -==Framework== 4 - 5 -====The role of the ballot is to vote for the debater that presents the best governmental policy option.==== 6 -Nixon 2K (Themba-Nixon, Makani. Executive Director of The Praxis Project, a nonprofit organization helping communities use media and policy advocacy to advance health equity and justice~~, "Changing the Rules: What Public Policy Means for Organizing" Colorlines 3.2, 2000) 7 -Getting It in Writing Much of the work of framing what we stand for takes 8 -... 9 -should be. And then we must be committed to making it so. 10 - 11 -====I value morality, as per the evaluative term, ‘ought’ in the resolution.==== 12 - 13 -====The standard is minimizing suffering.==== 14 - 15 -====We ground our existence through experience. Practical reason is arbitrary, meaning sentience is the only non-arbitrary source of normativity. Pain is universally bad and pleasure is universally good. ==== 16 -Thomas **Nagel ‘86** ~~"The View From Nowhere", 1986~~ //AG 17 -I shall defend the unsurprising claim that sensory pleasure is good and pain bad, 18 -... 19 -such cases. There can be no reason to reject the appearances here. 20 - 21 -==Plan== 22 - 23 -====Plan Text: Countries should prohibit the production of Floating Nuclear Power Plants in the OSPAR region.==== 24 - 25 -====To clarify, that’s just the Arctic Ocean.==== 26 - 27 -====Floating Nuclear Power Plants are specifically bad in the arctic – high risk of accidents and annihilation of marine ecosystems.==== 28 -**KIMO et al 11 **(KIMO International (Kommunenes Internasjonale Miljøorganisasjon) a local authorities international environmental organization designed to give municipalities a political voice at regional, EU and international level. Greenpeace International is an independent global campaigning organization that acts to change attitudes and behavior, to protect and conserve the environment and to promote peace. "Concerns on Floating and Submerged Nuclear Power Plants," The OSPAR Commission. Deep Sea Research Part B. Oceanographic Literature Review 31.12. 2011. http://www.nuclearpolicy.info/docs/news/KIMO'OSPAR'Sellafield'FNPP.pdf) //WW JA 8/26/16 29 -*** OSPAR is basically the Arctic region. 30 -Recent developments in nuclear energy technology 31 -... 32 -requested to consider a ban on their use within the OSPAR Maritime region. 33 - 34 -==The Advantage is Environmental Damage== 35 - 36 -===2 Internal Link Scenarios=== 37 - 38 -====1 - Warmin==== 39 - 40 -====We’re on track to solve warming in the status-quo.==== 41 -**Khomami 9/3.** Nadia Khomami is a news reporter at the Guardian. She also writes features on music, politics and popular culture. You can follow her on Twitter. , 9-3-2016, "G20 summit: US and China ratify Paris climate change agreement," Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2016/sep/03/g20-summit-obama-to-make-climate-change-announcement-as-may-heads-to-china-live //RS 42 -The US has joined China to formally ratify the Paris agreement to curb climate- 43 -... 44 -expect a surge of ratifications around the UN Climate week later in September." 45 - 46 -====FNPPs erode the Arctic environment.==== 47 -**Nikitin et al 04** (Alexandr Konstantinovich Nikitin is a retired first rank captain and a former nuclear installations safety inspector for the Russian Ministry of Defense (1987-1992). He is an author of multiple publications concerning the problems of radiation safety in the northern seas. Vladimir Mikhailovich Desyatov is a trained shipbuilding engineer. He has also been a representative of the President of Russia in the Khabarovsk region Igor Victorovich Forofontov is the coordinator of the Greenpeace nuclear campaign in Russia. He graduated from the physics faculty of Leningrad State University. Yevgeney Yakovlevic Simonov is a senior engineer and chief of shift at the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant (NPP), a nuclear operator on board the 900 series nuclear submarines and one of the heads of laboratory involved in the technical expert review of NPP project documentation. Ilya Borisovich Kolton was a scientific collaborator in the Kurchatov Institute within the technological-scientific centre of GosAtomNadzor. Alexey Vladimirovich Yablokov is a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Science. He is a former environmental adviser to the Russian President and former chairman of the governmental commission on sea-dumping of radioactive wastes. Vladimir Mikhailovich Kuznetsov is a former head (1986-1993) of the Russian Federal Inspectorate for Nuclear and Radiation Safety’s (GosAtomNadzor) department for supervision and inspection of nuclear and radiation safety at atomic engineering installations. "FLOATING NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS IN RUSSIA: A THREAT TO THE ARCTIC, WORLD OCEANS AND NON-PROLIFERATION TREATY," Green Cross Russia Third edition Edited and published by "Agenstwo Rakurs Production" Ltd Moscow, 2004 ISBN 2004. http://www.greencross.ch/uploads/media/gc'fnpp'book.pdf) //TruLe 48 -*** IRG – Inert Radioactive Gases*** 49 -When normal operating of NPP the designers 50 -... 51 -as transit through a cavity of a protective shell and a vent pipe. 52 - 53 -====2 – Oil spills==== 54 - 55 -====FNPPs will be used to power oil rigs – the impact is major oil spills and annihilation of marine ecosystems.==== 56 -Robert **Hunziker 15** (Robert Hunziker. "Drilling and Nuclear Power in the Arctic", Counter Punch, 6-10-2015, http://www.counterpunch.org/2015/06/10/drilling-and-nuclear-power-in-the-arctic/)//DM Accessed 9-8-2016 57 -Not only that, but astonishingly, Russia is doubling down on its risky energy 58 -... 59 -to Shell’s response capabilities and to those of U.S. agencies. 60 - 61 -==Impacts== 62 - 63 -====Arctic oil spills and warming cause planetary extinction – the Arctic is a keystone ecosystem. ==== 64 -WWF 10 (World Wildlife Fund, "Drilling for Oil in the Arctic: Too Soon, Too Risky" 12/1/10, http://assets.worldwildlife.org/publications/393/files/original/Drilling'for'Oil'in'the'Arctic'Too'Soon'Too'Risky.pdf?1345753131)//WL 65 -The Arctic and the subarctic regions surrounding it are important for many reasons. One 66 -... 67 -of any credible and tested means of responding effectively to a major spill. 68 - 69 -====Deep sea biodiversity loss risks extinction ==== 70 -**Danovaro 8 **~~Professor Roberto Danovaro, Scitizen.Com, February 12, 2008. "Deep-Sea Biodiversity Conservation Needed to Avoid Ecosystem Collapse". http://scitizen.com/stories/Biodiversity/2008/02/Deep-Sea-Biodiversity-Conservation-Needed-to-Avoid-Ecosystem-Collapse/~~ 71 -The exploration of the abysses of our planet is one of the last frontiers of 72 -... 73 -for the sustainability of the functions of the largest ecosystems on the planet. 74 - 75 -====Biodiversity loss and global warming disproportionately harms minority groups – empirically proven with Arctic indigenous communities==== 76 -**Stepien 14** (Adam Stepien is a researcher at the Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, Finland. "Arctic Indigenous Peoples, Climate Change Impacts, and Adaptation," E-International Relations. April 10, 2014. http://www.e-ir.info/2014/04/10/arctic-indigenous-peoples-climate-change-impacts-and-adaptation/) //WW JA 8/27/16 77 -Identified impacts are numerous. Many Arctic indigenous communities are characterized by mixed economic systems 78 -... 79 -the appearance in the North of invasive species and vector-borne diseases. 80 - 81 -====There’s an unquestionable scientific consensus about warming. ==== 82 -**Nuccitelli 16** — Dana Nuccitelli, Climate Writer for the Guardian, Environmental Scientist at Tetra Tech—a private environmental consulting firm, holds an M.A. in Physics from the University of California-Davis and a B.A. in Astrophysics from the University of California-Berkeley, 2016 ("It’s settled: 90–100 of climate experts agree on human-caused global warming," Climate Consensus – The 97—a Guardian blog about climate change, April 13^^th^^, Available Online at https://www.theguardian.com/environment/climate-consensus-97-per-cent/2016/apr/13/its-settled-90100-of-climate-experts-agree-on-human-caused-global-warming, Accessed 07-15-2016) 83 -There is an overwhelming expert scientific consensus on human-caused global warming. Authors 84 -... 85 -climate scientists, this paper should be the final word on the subject. 86 - 87 -====Russia will transition to renewables – multiple incentives.==== 88 -**Breyer 15.** Christian Breyer, Professor, 12-30-2015, "Russia can become one of the most energy-competitive areas based on renewables," LUT, http://www.lut.fi/web/en/news/-/asset'publisher/lGh4SAywhcPu/content/russia-can-become-one-of-the-most-energy-competitive-areas-based-on-renewables //RS 89 -A fully renewable energy system is achievable and economically viable in Russia and Central Asia 90 -... 91 --East Asia, South-East Asia, South America and Finland. 92 - 93 -==Underview== 94 - 95 -====1. Russia will have operating FNPPs in a month – plan uniquely key now.==== 96 -**Digges 15** (Charles Digges is an author for The Bellona Foundation and has a Bachelor’s and Master’s degree in Russian Literature from Harvard. He is also a journalist for a number of major newspapers and media companies worldwide such as The Moscow Times, the International Herald Tribune, BBC, The Nation and The Amsterdam Volkskraant. "Arctic-hopping Russian Deputy Minister promises floating nuclear plant by next year," The Bellona Foundation. April 23, 2015. http://bellona.org/news/nuclear-issues/nuclear-russia/2015-04-arctic-hopping-russian-deputy-minister-promises-russias-floating-nuclear-plant-next-year) //WW JA 8/27/16 97 -After years of delays and promises, Russia’s first floating nuclear power plant is now 98 -... 99 -not, it could end up as another orphaned, dangerous nuclear installation." 100 - 101 -====2. Ask if I will meet your interp in CX; avoids unnecessary theory- we can work something out; this allows for greater substantive debate which is the only form of education unique to debate – education at school is just soaking in information. Grant me an auto I meet on theory if the interp isn’t checked in cross-ex to discourage non-checking.==== 102 - 103 -====3. Moving away from the state dooms the lefts’ critique to failure - must work within the state without being statist==== 104 -Connolly 8 ~~William, Professor of Political Science at John Hopkins, Capitalism and Christianity, American Style, page numbers are at the bottom of the card.~~ 105 -Before turning to possible strategies to promote these objectives, we need to face an 106 -... 107 -were it to occur, would undermine rather than vitalize democratic culture.29 - EntryDate
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... ... @@ -1,0 +1,107 @@ 1 +=1AC – Arctic FNPP= 2 + 3 +==Framework== 4 + 5 +====The role of the ballot is to vote for the debater that presents the best governmental policy option.==== 6 +Nixon 2K (Themba-Nixon, Makani. Executive Director of The Praxis Project, a nonprofit organization helping communities use media and policy advocacy to advance health equity and justice~~, "Changing the Rules: What Public Policy Means for Organizing" Colorlines 3.2, 2000) 7 +Getting It in Writing Much of the work of framing what we stand for takes 8 +... 9 +should be. And then we must be committed to making it so. 10 + 11 +====I value morality, as per the evaluative term, ‘ought’ in the resolution.==== 12 + 13 +====The standard is minimizing suffering.==== 14 + 15 +====We ground our existence through experience. Practical reason is arbitrary, meaning sentience is the only non-arbitrary source of normativity. Pain is universally bad and pleasure is universally good. ==== 16 +Thomas **Nagel ‘86** ~~"The View From Nowhere", 1986~~ //AG 17 +I shall defend the unsurprising claim that sensory pleasure is good and pain bad, 18 +... 19 +such cases. There can be no reason to reject the appearances here. 20 + 21 +==Plan== 22 + 23 +====Plan Text: Countries should prohibit the production of Floating Nuclear Power Plants in the OSPAR region.==== 24 + 25 +====To clarify, that’s just the Arctic Ocean.==== 26 + 27 +====Floating Nuclear Power Plants are specifically bad in the arctic – high risk of accidents and annihilation of marine ecosystems.==== 28 +**KIMO et al 11 **(KIMO International (Kommunenes Internasjonale Miljøorganisasjon) a local authorities international environmental organization designed to give municipalities a political voice at regional, EU and international level. Greenpeace International is an independent global campaigning organization that acts to change attitudes and behavior, to protect and conserve the environment and to promote peace. "Concerns on Floating and Submerged Nuclear Power Plants," The OSPAR Commission. Deep Sea Research Part B. Oceanographic Literature Review 31.12. 2011. http://www.nuclearpolicy.info/docs/news/KIMO'OSPAR'Sellafield'FNPP.pdf) //WW JA 8/26/16 29 +*** OSPAR is basically the Arctic region. 30 +Recent developments in nuclear energy technology 31 +... 32 +requested to consider a ban on their use within the OSPAR Maritime region. 33 + 34 +==The Advantage is Environmental Damage== 35 + 36 +===2 Internal Link Scenarios=== 37 + 38 +====1 - Warmin==== 39 + 40 +====We’re on track to solve warming in the status-quo.==== 41 +**Khomami 9/3.** Nadia Khomami is a news reporter at the Guardian. She also writes features on music, politics and popular culture. You can follow her on Twitter. , 9-3-2016, "G20 summit: US and China ratify Paris climate change agreement," Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2016/sep/03/g20-summit-obama-to-make-climate-change-announcement-as-may-heads-to-china-live //RS 42 +The US has joined China to formally ratify the Paris agreement to curb climate- 43 +... 44 +expect a surge of ratifications around the UN Climate week later in September." 45 + 46 +====FNPPs erode the Arctic environment.==== 47 +**Nikitin et al 04** (Alexandr Konstantinovich Nikitin is a retired first rank captain and a former nuclear installations safety inspector for the Russian Ministry of Defense (1987-1992). He is an author of multiple publications concerning the problems of radiation safety in the northern seas. Vladimir Mikhailovich Desyatov is a trained shipbuilding engineer. He has also been a representative of the President of Russia in the Khabarovsk region Igor Victorovich Forofontov is the coordinator of the Greenpeace nuclear campaign in Russia. He graduated from the physics faculty of Leningrad State University. Yevgeney Yakovlevic Simonov is a senior engineer and chief of shift at the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant (NPP), a nuclear operator on board the 900 series nuclear submarines and one of the heads of laboratory involved in the technical expert review of NPP project documentation. Ilya Borisovich Kolton was a scientific collaborator in the Kurchatov Institute within the technological-scientific centre of GosAtomNadzor. Alexey Vladimirovich Yablokov is a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Science. He is a former environmental adviser to the Russian President and former chairman of the governmental commission on sea-dumping of radioactive wastes. Vladimir Mikhailovich Kuznetsov is a former head (1986-1993) of the Russian Federal Inspectorate for Nuclear and Radiation Safety’s (GosAtomNadzor) department for supervision and inspection of nuclear and radiation safety at atomic engineering installations. "FLOATING NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS IN RUSSIA: A THREAT TO THE ARCTIC, WORLD OCEANS AND NON-PROLIFERATION TREATY," Green Cross Russia Third edition Edited and published by "Agenstwo Rakurs Production" Ltd Moscow, 2004 ISBN 2004. http://www.greencross.ch/uploads/media/gc'fnpp'book.pdf) //TruLe 48 +*** IRG – Inert Radioactive Gases*** 49 +When normal operating of NPP the designers 50 +... 51 +as transit through a cavity of a protective shell and a vent pipe. 52 + 53 +====2 – Oil spills==== 54 + 55 +====FNPPs will be used to power oil rigs – the impact is major oil spills and annihilation of marine ecosystems.==== 56 +Robert **Hunziker 15** (Robert Hunziker. "Drilling and Nuclear Power in the Arctic", Counter Punch, 6-10-2015, http://www.counterpunch.org/2015/06/10/drilling-and-nuclear-power-in-the-arctic/)//DM Accessed 9-8-2016 57 +Not only that, but astonishingly, Russia is doubling down on its risky energy 58 +... 59 +to Shell’s response capabilities and to those of U.S. agencies. 60 + 61 +==Impacts== 62 + 63 +====Arctic oil spills and warming cause planetary extinction – the Arctic is a keystone ecosystem. ==== 64 +WWF 10 (World Wildlife Fund, "Drilling for Oil in the Arctic: Too Soon, Too Risky" 12/1/10, http://assets.worldwildlife.org/publications/393/files/original/Drilling'for'Oil'in'the'Arctic'Too'Soon'Too'Risky.pdf?1345753131)//WL 65 +The Arctic and the subarctic regions surrounding it are important for many reasons. One 66 +... 67 +of any credible and tested means of responding effectively to a major spill. 68 + 69 +====Deep sea biodiversity loss risks extinction ==== 70 +**Danovaro 8 **~~Professor Roberto Danovaro, Scitizen.Com, February 12, 2008. "Deep-Sea Biodiversity Conservation Needed to Avoid Ecosystem Collapse". http://scitizen.com/stories/Biodiversity/2008/02/Deep-Sea-Biodiversity-Conservation-Needed-to-Avoid-Ecosystem-Collapse/~~ 71 +The exploration of the abysses of our planet is one of the last frontiers of 72 +... 73 +for the sustainability of the functions of the largest ecosystems on the planet. 74 + 75 +====Biodiversity loss and global warming disproportionately harms minority groups – empirically proven with Arctic indigenous communities==== 76 +**Stepien 14** (Adam Stepien is a researcher at the Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, Finland. "Arctic Indigenous Peoples, Climate Change Impacts, and Adaptation," E-International Relations. April 10, 2014. http://www.e-ir.info/2014/04/10/arctic-indigenous-peoples-climate-change-impacts-and-adaptation/) //WW JA 8/27/16 77 +Identified impacts are numerous. Many Arctic indigenous communities are characterized by mixed economic systems 78 +... 79 +the appearance in the North of invasive species and vector-borne diseases. 80 + 81 +====There’s an unquestionable scientific consensus about warming. ==== 82 +**Nuccitelli 16** — Dana Nuccitelli, Climate Writer for the Guardian, Environmental Scientist at Tetra Tech—a private environmental consulting firm, holds an M.A. in Physics from the University of California-Davis and a B.A. in Astrophysics from the University of California-Berkeley, 2016 ("It’s settled: 90–100 of climate experts agree on human-caused global warming," Climate Consensus – The 97—a Guardian blog about climate change, April 13^^th^^, Available Online at https://www.theguardian.com/environment/climate-consensus-97-per-cent/2016/apr/13/its-settled-90100-of-climate-experts-agree-on-human-caused-global-warming, Accessed 07-15-2016) 83 +There is an overwhelming expert scientific consensus on human-caused global warming. Authors 84 +... 85 +climate scientists, this paper should be the final word on the subject. 86 + 87 +====Russia will transition to renewables – multiple incentives.==== 88 +**Breyer 15.** Christian Breyer, Professor, 12-30-2015, "Russia can become one of the most energy-competitive areas based on renewables," LUT, http://www.lut.fi/web/en/news/-/asset'publisher/lGh4SAywhcPu/content/russia-can-become-one-of-the-most-energy-competitive-areas-based-on-renewables //RS 89 +A fully renewable energy system is achievable and economically viable in Russia and Central Asia 90 +... 91 +-East Asia, South-East Asia, South America and Finland. 92 + 93 +==Underview== 94 + 95 +====1. Russia will have operating FNPPs in a month – plan uniquely key now.==== 96 +**Digges 15** (Charles Digges is an author for The Bellona Foundation and has a Bachelor’s and Master’s degree in Russian Literature from Harvard. He is also a journalist for a number of major newspapers and media companies worldwide such as The Moscow Times, the International Herald Tribune, BBC, The Nation and The Amsterdam Volkskraant. "Arctic-hopping Russian Deputy Minister promises floating nuclear plant by next year," The Bellona Foundation. April 23, 2015. http://bellona.org/news/nuclear-issues/nuclear-russia/2015-04-arctic-hopping-russian-deputy-minister-promises-russias-floating-nuclear-plant-next-year) //WW JA 8/27/16 97 +After years of delays and promises, Russia’s first floating nuclear power plant is now 98 +... 99 +not, it could end up as another orphaned, dangerous nuclear installation." 100 + 101 +====2. Ask if I will meet your interp in CX; avoids unnecessary theory- we can work something out; this allows for greater substantive debate which is the only form of education unique to debate – education at school is just soaking in information. Grant me an auto I meet on theory if the interp isn’t checked in cross-ex to discourage non-checking.==== 102 + 103 +====3. Moving away from the state dooms the lefts’ critique to failure - must work within the state without being statist==== 104 +Connolly 8 ~~William, Professor of Political Science at John Hopkins, Capitalism and Christianity, American Style, page numbers are at the bottom of the card.~~ 105 +Before turning to possible strategies to promote these objectives, we need to face an 106 +... 107 +were it to occur, would undermine rather than vitalize democratic culture.29 - EntryDate
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... ... @@ -1,0 +1,130 @@ 1 +=1AC – Arctic FNPP= 2 + 3 + 4 +==Framework== 5 + 6 + 7 +====The role of the ballot is to vote for the debater that presents the best governmental policy option – key to out of round advocacy skills.==== 8 +Nixon 2K (Themba-Nixon, Makani. Executive Director of The Praxis Project, a nonprofit organization helping communities use media and policy advocacy to advance health equity and justice~~, "Changing the Rules: What Public Policy Means for Organizing" Colorlines 3.2, 2000) 9 +Getting It in Writing Much of the work of framing what we stand for takes 10 +... 11 +should be. And then we must be committed to making it so. 12 + 13 + 14 +====I value morality, as per the evaluative term, ‘ought’ in the resolution.==== 15 + 16 + 17 +====The standard is minimizing suffering.==== 18 + 19 + 20 +====We ground our existence through experience. Practical reason is arbitrary, meaning sentience is the only non-arbitrary source of normativity. Pain is universally bad and pleasure is universally good. ==== 21 +Thomas **Nagel ‘86** ~~"The View From Nowhere", 1986~~ //AG 22 +I shall defend the unsurprising claim that sensory pleasure is good and pain bad, 23 +... 24 +such cases. There can be no reason to reject the appearances here. 25 + 26 + 27 +==Plan== 28 + 29 + 30 +====Plan Text: Countries should prohibit the production of Floating Nuclear Power Plants in the OSPAR region. I reserve the right to clarify anything about the plan in cx.==== 31 + 32 + 33 +====Floating Nuclear Power Plants are specifically bad in the arctic – high risk of accidents and annihilation of marine ecosystems.==== 34 +**KIMO 11 **(KIMO International (Kommunenes Internasjonale Miljøorganisasjon) a local authorities international environmental organization designed to give municipalities a political voice at regional, EU and international level. Greenpeace International is an independent global campaigning organization that acts to change attitudes and behavior, to protect and conserve the environment and to promote peace. "Concerns on Floating and Submerged Nuclear Power Plants," The OSPAR Commission. Deep Sea Research Part B. Oceanographic Literature Review 31.12. 2011. http://www.nuclearpolicy.info/docs/news/KIMO'OSPAR'Sellafield'FNPP.pdf) //WW JA 8/26/16 35 +*** OSPAR is basically the Arctic region. 36 +Recent developments in nuclear energy technology 37 +... 38 +requested to consider a ban on their use within the OSPAR Maritime region. 39 + 40 + 41 +==The Advantage is Environmental Damage== 42 + 43 + 44 +===Two Internal Link Scenarios=== 45 + 46 + 47 +====1 – Warming==== 48 + 49 + 50 +====We’re on track to solve warming in the status-quo.==== 51 +**Khomami 16.** Nadia Khomami is a news reporter at the Guardian. She also writes features on music, politics and popular culture. You can follow her on Twitter. , 9-3-2016, "G20 summit: US and China ratify Paris climate change agreement," Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2016/sep/03/g20-summit-obama-to-make-climate-change-announcement-as-may-heads-to-china-live //RS 52 +The US has joined China to formally ratify the Paris agreement to curb climate- 53 +... 54 +expect a surge of ratifications around the UN Climate week later in September." 55 + 56 + 57 +====FNPPs erode the Arctic environment.==== 58 +**Nikitin 04** (Alexandr Konstantinovich Nikitin is a retired first rank captain and a former nuclear installations safety inspector for the Russian Ministry of Defense (1987-1992). He is an author of multiple publications concerning the problems of radiation safety in the northern seas. Vladimir Mikhailovich Desyatov is a trained shipbuilding engineer. He has also been a representative of the President of Russia in the Khabarovsk region Igor Victorovich Forofontov is the coordinator of the Greenpeace nuclear campaign in Russia. He graduated from the physics faculty of Leningrad State University. Yevgeney Yakovlevic Simonov is a senior engineer and chief of shift at the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant (NPP), a nuclear operator on board the 900 series nuclear submarines and one of the heads of laboratory involved in the technical expert review of NPP project documentation. Ilya Borisovich Kolton was a scientific collaborator in the Kurchatov Institute within the technological-scientific centre of GosAtomNadzor. Alexey Vladimirovich Yablokov is a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Science. He is a former environmental adviser to the Russian President and former chairman of the governmental commission on sea-dumping of radioactive wastes. Vladimir Mikhailovich Kuznetsov is a former head (1986-1993) of the Russian Federal Inspectorate for Nuclear and Radiation Safety’s (GosAtomNadzor) department for supervision and inspection of nuclear and radiation safety at atomic engineering installations. "FLOATING NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS IN RUSSIA: A THREAT TO THE ARCTIC, WORLD OCEANS AND NON-PROLIFERATION TREATY," Green Cross Russia Third edition Edited and published by "Agenstwo Rakurs Production" Ltd Moscow, 2004 ISBN 2004. http://www.greencross.ch/uploads/media/gc'fnpp'book.pdf) //TruLe 59 +*** IRG – Inert Radioactive Gases*** 60 +When normal operating of NPP the designers 61 +... 62 +as transit through a cavity of a protective shell and a vent pipe. 63 + 64 + 65 +====2 – Oil spills==== 66 + 67 + 68 +====FNPPs will be used to power oil rigs – the impact is major oil spills and annihilation of marine ecosystems.==== 69 +**Hunziker 15.** (Robert Hunziker. "Drilling and Nuclear Power in the Arctic", Counter Punch, 6-10-2015, http://www.counterpunch.org/2015/06/10/drilling-and-nuclear-power-in-the-arctic/)//DM Accessed 9-8-2016 70 +Not only that, but astonishingly, Russia is doubling down on its risky energy 71 +... 72 +to Shell’s response capabilities and to those of U.S. agencies. 73 + 74 + 75 +===Impacts=== 76 + 77 + 78 +====Arctic oil spills and warming cause planetary extinction – the Arctic is a keystone ecosystem. ==== 79 +WWF 10 (World Wildlife Fund, "Drilling for Oil in the Arctic: Too Soon, Too Risky" 12/1/10, http://assets.worldwildlife.org/publications/393/files/original/Drilling'for'Oil'in'the'Arctic'Too'Soon'Too'Risky.pdf?1345753131)//WL 80 +The Arctic and the subarctic regions surrounding it are important for many reasons. One 81 +... 82 +of any credible and tested means of responding effectively to a major spill. 83 + 84 + 85 +====Deep sea biodiversity loss risks extinction ==== 86 +**Danovaro 8 **~~Professor Roberto Danovaro, Scitizen.Com, February 12, 2008. "Deep-Sea Biodiversity Conservation Needed to Avoid Ecosystem Collapse". http://scitizen.com/stories/Biodiversity/2008/02/Deep-Sea-Biodiversity-Conservation-Needed-to-Avoid-Ecosystem-Collapse/~~ 87 +The exploration of the abysses of our planet is one of the last frontiers of 88 +... 89 +for the sustainability of the functions of the largest ecosystems on the planet. 90 + 91 + 92 +====Biodiversity loss and warming destroy Arctic indigenous communities.==== 93 +**Stepien 14** (Adam Stepien is a researcher at the Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, Finland. "Arctic Indigenous Peoples, Climate Change Impacts, and Adaptation," E-International Relations. April 10, 2014. http://www.e-ir.info/2014/04/10/arctic-indigenous-peoples-climate-change-impacts-and-adaptation/) //WW JA 8/27/16 94 +Identified impacts are numerous. Many Arctic indigenous communities are characterized by mixed economic systems 95 +... 96 +the appearance in the North of invasive species and vector-borne diseases. 97 + 98 + 99 +====Russia is shifting to renewables in the status-quo regardless of the plan.==== 100 +**Breyer 15.** Christian Breyer, Professor, 12-30-2015, "Russia can become one of the most energy-competitive areas based on renewables," LUT, http://www.lut.fi/web/en/news/-/asset'publisher/lGh4SAywhcPu/content/russia-can-become-one-of-the-most-energy-competitive-areas-based-on-renewables //RS 101 +A fully renewable energy system is achievable and economically viable in Russia and Central Asia 102 +... 103 +-East Asia, South-East Asia, South America and Finland. 104 + 105 + 106 +====Russian FNPPs are located in seismic hotspots. Earthquake related devastation is inevitable.==== 107 +**Andreyev 11** (Alexandr Konstantinovich Nikitin is a retired first rank captain and a former nuclear installations safety inspector for the Russian Ministry of Defense (1987-1992). He is an author of multiple publications concerning the problems of radiation safety in the northern seas. Leonid Andreyev is a Doctor of Economics and an economics expert for the Bellona Foundation. "Floating nuclear power plants," The Bellona Foundation. 2011. http://bellona.no/assets/sites/4/Floating-nuclear-power-plants.pdf) //WW JA 8/26/16 108 +In terms of extreme impacts caused by natural forces and taking all possible factors into 109 +... 110 +powerful tsunami wave, a nuclear accident with grave consequences will be unavoidable. 111 + 112 + 113 +==U/V== 114 + 115 + 116 +====Give Aff RVIs on T/Theory. A) Strat skew- NC theory is a priori and renders the 1ac useless. They get 6 minutes to respond to a 4 minute 1ar. The neg doesn’t need an RVI because they have twice the rebuttal time. B) Discourages bad theory because debaters won’t run it frivolously if they know they can lose on it. C) No-risk issues hurt education because they provide competitive incentive to kick the shell instead of clashing. Prefer on grounds of reciprocity – I have to defend a policy they should too.==== 117 + 118 + 119 +====Even if my representations aren’t completely accurate- Our framing drives action that’s necessary to resolve problems in the status quo.==== 120 +**Schatz 12** (Jul. 2012. Dr. JL Schatz is a PhD. and professor at Binghamton University. He teaches Media and Politics, Argumentative Theory, and Literature and Technology. "The Importance of Apocalypse: The Value of End-of-the-World Politics While Advancing Ecocriticism" The Journal of Ecocriticism. A peer reviewed journal. http://ojs.unbc.ca/index.php/joe/article/viewFile/394/382) //WW JA 7/14/16 121 +It is no longer a question that human interaction with the world is destroying the 122 +... 123 +either ecological metaphors or environmental reality we only get part of the picture.` 124 + 125 + 126 +====Theories that can’t create material change in the real world are counter-productive and threaten actual solutions to oppression.==== 127 +**Curry 14** (Tommy J. "The Cost of a Thing: A Kingian Reformulation of a Living Wage Argument in the 21st Century" (2014) Victory Briefs, p. 55-56 Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Texas AandM) 128 +Despite the pronouncement of debate as an activity and intellectual exercise pointing to the real 129 +... 130 +used to currently justify the living wages in under our contemporary moral parameters. - EntryDate
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... ... @@ -1,0 +1,105 @@ 1 +===Part 1 is The Fence=== 2 + 3 + 4 +====Qualified immunity gives the US Border Patrol a shield under which it brutally tortures and kills Mexicans.==== 5 +**Kennis 16.** (Andrew Kennis. Andrew Kennis is an international journalist, a higher education pedagogue and an academic researcher specializing in Digital Journalism Studies, Communication Policy Studies, Global Media, Political Communication, Political Economy and International Communications. Dr. Kennis was recently appointed as a Visiting Assistant Professor at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), where he will teach several courses, including a graduate seminar analyzing the news media and the drug war. He recently completed his third year as an Assistant Professor at the University of Texas, El Paso (UTEP), where he undertook research on and taught courses in journalism studies and practice, global media and the drug war. While publishing peer-reviewed, scholarly research and completing grant-funded studies, Dr. Kennis still continues to practice journalism from many corners of the globe. As a researcher, Dr. Kennis has published in peer review journals ranging across three different disciplines (communications, political science and technology studies). He has won top conference paper awards and presented his work in both the United States and abroad (London, Tokyo, Vancouver and Mexico City). University-level courses Dr. Kennis has designed and taught have included "Multimedia Writing," "Investigative and Public Affairs Reporting," "Digital Media and Globalization," "Global Media, Money and Power," "Media and the Drug War," "Media and Democracy," "Politics and the Media," and other classes in political science, policy studies and society and technology studies. As a journalist, Dr. Kennis has practiced online-based / convergence reporting, investigative and print reporting, citizen journalism, and online-based and traditional radio throughout the last fifteen years. He has reported from locations based in four continents and over twenty countries across the globe, including on-the-scene reporting from the El Paso / Ciudad Juarez border corridor, Brazil, Colombia, Israel and the Occupied Territories, Japan, Venezuela, Taiwan, Guatemala and Mexico. Dr. Kennis served as the border correspondent for teleSUR's English division and has also published in a variety of news sources, including The Christian Science Monitor, Al Jazeera English, teleSUR English, Proceso (Mexico), Time Out, emeequis (Mexico). His work has resulted in invited on-air expert appearances on both live international television and radio broadcasts. "Supreme Court to Decide Fate of Case That Challenges Cross-Border Killings by US Agents". 03/30/16. https://news.vice.com/article/supreme-court-cross-border-killing-patrol-agent-usa-mexico) //TruLe 6 +Sergio Adrián Hernández was a slender 15-year-old boy who loved soccer 7 +... 8 +in light of the pending decision to be taken by the Supreme Court. 9 + 10 + 11 +====The Border Patrol systematically uses the legal system as a tool to hide their violence and to absolve themselves of any responsibility.==== 12 +Bennett 15. Brian Bennett, 6-15-2015, "Border Patrol absolves itself in dozens of cases of lethal force," La Times, http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-border-patrol-shootings-20150615-story.html//AD 13 +A U.S. Border Patrol agent who killed an unarmed 15-year 14 +... 15 +. The official autopsy says Rodriguez was hit eight times in the back. 16 + 17 + 18 +====Qualified Immunity is used to commit racialized genocide at the border.==== 19 +Dunn 01. Dunn, Timothy J. "Border Militarization Via Drug And Immigration enforcement: Human Rights Implications." Social Justice, vol. 28, no. 2 (84), 2001, pp. 7–30. www.jstor.org/stable/29768073.//AD 20 +Military collaboration with the Border Patrol in the U.S.-Mexico border region 21 +... 22 +so will likely fan the mania for border enforcement and endanger human rights. 23 + 24 + 25 +===Part 2 is The Resistance=== 26 + 27 + 28 +====Plan text: The Supreme Court of the United States should limit qualified immunity for Border Patrol Agents. To clarify the Supreme Court should rule in favor of Hernandez in the ongoing Hernandez V. Mesa court case. I reserve the right to clarify in cx.==== 29 + 30 + 31 +====The plan sets a precedent that holds Border Patrol agents accountable.==== 32 +**TNAP 10/21 **(The Tucson News Associated Press frequently writes articles on local and national news related to the Tucson area. "Appeals court considers claim against agent in fatal cross-border shooting," Tucson.com. October 21, 2016. http://tucson.com/news/local/border/appeals-court-considers-claim-against-agent-in-fatal-cross-border/article'fe6f3ae8-97bc-11e6-9d7f-bb001c158b16.html) //WW JA 11/4/16 33 +Allowing a Border Patrol agent to escape trial for shooting a Mexican teen through the 34 +... 35 +no precedent set, freeing the 9th Circuit to reach its own conclusion. 36 + 37 + 38 +====The plan is key to accountability and spills over – we catalyze institutional reform.==== 39 +**De Stefan 16.** (Lindsey De Stefan is a former lawyer for Maceri and da Costa LLC and currently works for Seton Hall Law Review, 2017, " "No Man Is Above the Law and No Man Is Below It:" How Qualified Immunity Reform Could Create Accountability and Curb Widespread Police Misconduct," Law School Student Scholarship, http://scholarship.shu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1861andamp;context=student'scholarship) //RS 40 +Irrespective of whether there has been an increase in the incidence of brutality or whether 41 +... 42 +step in decreasing the overall incidence of police misconduct in the United States. 43 + 44 + 45 +====They continue:==== 46 +By beginning to mend the qualified immunity doctrine 47 +... 48 +surely be a long path to rebuilding the trust that is so crucial. 49 + 50 + 51 +====Action must be grounded in anti-militarist epistemology – our literal reading of this aff is key to rupture dominant nationalist framing of the border.==== 52 +**Chávez 12** (Karma R. Chávez is an associate professor of rhetoric, politics, and culture at University of Wisconsin-Madison. Ph.D. Arizona State University, 2007. M.A. University of Alabama, 2003. M.A. University of Alabama, 2002. "Border Interventions: The need to Shift from a Rhetoric of Security to a Rhetoric of Militarization," 2012) //JA 11/24/15 53 +Scholars of rhetoric and performance have opened important terrains in the study of immigration and 54 +... 55 +are conflated, similarly to how undocumented migration and drug trafficking were conflated. 56 + 57 + 58 +====Anti-militarist knowledge production precedes T/Theory:==== 59 + 60 + 61 +====1~~ Militarism controls education – it has seeped into the debate space and corrupted our epistemology.==== 62 + 63 + 64 +====2~~ The 1AC appeals to social fairness i.e. the inclusion of minorities in political discourse – outweighs any trivial versions of fairness in the game of debate.==== 65 + 66 + 67 +====3~~ No impact to theory – people won’t stop being abusive after this round, but the classroom should be a focal point of resistance – militarism manifests itself in the debate space by silencing deviant viewpoints and rigorously conditioning students to accept the culture of war.==== 68 + 69 + 70 +===Part 3 is The Mechanism=== 71 + 72 + 73 +====The role of the ballot is to vote for the debater that best ruptures the ideology of militarization that has infected the public sphere. Resistance to the police state is a prior question. ==== 74 +**Giroux 04.** (Henry A. Giroux is an American and Canadian scholar and cultural critic. One of the founding theorists of critical pedagogy in the United States, he is best known for his pioneering work in public pedagogy, cultural studies, youth studies, higher education, media studies, and critical theory. "War on Terror The Militarising of Public Space and Culture in the United States", Third Text, Vol. 18, Issue 4, 2004. http://www.henryagiroux.com/online'articles/Third20Text202004-war20on20terror.pdf) //JA 11/26/15 75 +As militarisation spreads its influence both at home and abroad, a culture of fear 76 +... 77 +which a democratic future both at home and abroad stands in the balance. 78 + 79 + 80 +====Debates over qualified immunity require a focus on consequences.==== 81 +**Chen 97.** Alan Chen is a leading national expert in free speech doctrine and theory, 1997, " THE BURDENS OF QUALIFIED IMMUNITY: SUMMARY JUDGMENT AND THE ROLE OF FACTS IN CONSTITUTIONAL TORT LAW," The American University Law Review, http://www.americanuniversitylawreview.org/pdfs/47/47-1/chen.pdf //RS 82 +In the modem constitutional era, the Court defines the scope of substantive constitutional law 83 +... 84 +decisionmaker determines the outcome by evaluating which interest or value is "weightier." 85 + 86 + 87 +====Pure critique is useless without concrete solutions and moving away from the state dooms the left’s critique to failure – must work within the state without being statist==== 88 +**Connolly 08.** (William, Professor of Political Science at John Hopkins, Capitalism and Christianity, American Style, page numbers are at the bottom of the card.) 89 +Before turning to possible strategies to promote these objectives, we need to face an 90 +... 91 +were it to occur, would undermine rather than vitalize democratic culture.29 92 + 93 + 94 +====Inequality creates flawed epistemic conclusions, making normative decision making impossible.==== 95 +**Medina 11.** Medina, J. (2011). Toward a Foucaultian Epistemology of Resistance: Counter-Memory, Epistemic Friction, and Guerrilla Pluralism. Foucault Studies, 1(12), 9–35 96 +Foucault invites us to pay attention to the past and ongoing epistemic battles among competing 97 +... 98 +until past epistemic battles are reopened and established frameworks become open to contestation. 99 + 100 + 101 +====Particularism is good—root cause claims and focus on overarching structures ignore application to material injustice.==== 102 +Gregory Fernando Pappas 16 ~~Texas AandM University~~ "The Pragmatists’ Approach to Injustice", The Pluralist Volume 11, Number 1, Spring 2016, BE 103 +The pragmatists’ approach should be distinguished from nonideal theories whose starting point seems to be 104 +... 105 +in making us see aspects of injustices we would not otherwise appreciate.15 - EntryDate
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... ... @@ -1,0 +1,129 @@ 1 +=Strake 1AC= 2 + 3 + 4 +===Framework=== 5 + 6 + 7 +====Resolved: Public colleges and universities in the United States ought not restrict any constitutionally protected speech.==== 8 + 9 + 10 +====I value morality.==== 11 + 12 + 13 +====First, to evaluate ethical judgments we must interrogate ontologies of exclusion to filter out ethical biases.==== 14 +Butler 09. Judith Butler, "Frames of War: When is Life Grievable?" Jan 1st 2009, Pg.138, http://books.google.com/books/about/Frames'of'War.html?id=ga7hAAAAMAAJ 15 +We ask such normative questions as if we know what we mean by the subjects even as we do not always know how best to represent or recognize various subjects. Indeed, the “we” who asks such questions for the most part assumes that the problem is a normative one, namely, how best to arrange political life so that recognition and representation can take place. And though surely this is a crucial, if not the most crucial, normative question to ask, we cannot possibly approach an answer if we do not consider the ontology of the subject whose recognition and representation is at issue. Moreover, any inquiry into that ontology requires that we consider another level at which the normative operates, namely, through norms that produce the idea of the human who is worthy of recognition and representation at all. That is to say, we cannot ask and answer the most commonly understood normative questions, regarding how best to represent or recognize such subjects, if we fail to understand the differential of power at work that distinguishes between those subjects who will be eligible for recognition and those who will not. 16 + 17 + 18 +====Morality mandates expression of all voices, which necessarily prohibits structural oppression.==== 19 +Young 74. Iris Marion Young, Professor in Political Science at the University of Chicago since 2000, masters and doctorate in philosophy in 1974 from Pennsylvania State University. ~~"Justice and the Politics of Difference". Princeton University Press, 1990, Digital Copy.~~ 20 +Group representation, third, encourages the expression of individual ¶ and group needs and interests in terms that appeal to justice, that transform an "I want" into an "I am entitled to," in Hannah Pitkin's words. In ¶ Chapter 4 I argued that publicity itself encourages this transformation ¶ because a condition of the public is that people call one another to account. Group representation adds to such accountability because it serves as an antidote to self-deceiving self-interest masked as an impartial or general interest. Unless confronted with different perspectives on social relations and events, different values and language, most people tend to assert their perspective as universal. When social privilege allows some group perspectives to dominate a public while others are silent, such universalizing of the particular will be reaffirmed by many others. Thus the test of whether a claim upon the public is just or merely an expression of self interest is best made when those making it must confront the opinion of ¶ others who have explicitly with different, though not necessarily conflicting, ¶ experiences, priorities, and needs (cf. Sunstein, 1988, p. 1588). As a person of social privilege, I am more likely to go outside myself and have ¶ regard for social justice when I must listen to the voice of those my privilege otherwise tends to silence. 21 + 22 + 23 +====Thus the standard is combatting structural violence.==== 24 + 25 + 26 +====Prefer consequence-based frameworks:==== 27 + 28 + 29 +====Only naturalism is epistemically accessible==== 30 +**Papinaeu 11** ~~David Papineau, "Naturalism," Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2007~~ 31 +Moore took this argument to show that moral facts comprise a distinct species of non-natural fact. However, any such non-naturalist view of morality faces immediate difficulties, deriving ultimately from the kind of causal closure thesis discussed above. If all physical effects are due to a limited range of natural causes, and if moral facts lie outside this range, then it follow that moral facts can never make any difference to what happens in the physical world (Harman, 1986). At first sight this may seem tolerable (perhaps moral facts indeed don't have any physical effects). But it has very awkward epistemological consequences. For beings like us, knowledge of the spatiotemporal world is mediated by physical processes involving our sense organs and cognitive systems. If moral facts cannot influence the physical world, then it is hard to see how we can have any knowledge of them. 32 + 33 + 34 +====Intentions and states of being are non-falsifiable and can only be informed by hypothetical consequences==== 35 + 36 + 37 +====Life is a pre-requisite to agency and freedom – that justifies exceptions to hyper-individualist ethics==== 38 + 39 + 40 +====Experience is epistemic – it is how we empirically ground our existence. Pain is universally bad and pleasure is universally good.==== 41 +**Nagel ‘86**. Thomas ~~"The View From Nowhere", 1986~~ 42 +I shall defend the unsurprising claim that sensory pleasure is good and pain bad, no matter who’s they are. The point of the exercise is to see how the pressures of objectification operate in a simple case. Physical pleasure and pain do not usually depend on activities or desires which themselves raise questions of justification and value. They are just is a sensory experiences in relation to which we are fairly passive, but toward which we feel involuntary desire or aversion. Almost everyone takes the avoidance of his own pain and the promotion of his own pleasure as subjective reasons for action in a fairly simple way; they are not back up by any further reasons. On the other hand if someone pursues pain or avoids pleasure, either it as a means to some end or it is backed up by dark reasons like guilt or sexual masochism. What sort of general value, if any, ought to be assigned to pleasure and pain when we consider these facts from an objective standpoint? What kind of judgment can we reasonably make about these things when we view them in abstraction from who we are? We can begin by asking why there is no plausibility in the zero position, that pleasure and pain have no value of any kind that can be objectively recognized. That would mean that I have no reason to take aspirin for a severe headache, however I may in fact be motivated; and that looking at it from outside, you couldn't even say that someone had a reason not to put his hand on a hot stove, just because of the pain… Without some positive reason to think there is nothing in itself good or bad about having an experience you intensely like or dislike, we can't seriously regard the common impression to the contrary as a collective illusion. Such things are at least good or bad for us, if anything is. What seems to be going on here is that we cannot from an objective standpoint withhold a certain kind of endorsement of the most direct and immediate subjective value judgments we make concerning the contents of our own consciousness. We regard ourselves as too close to those things to be mistaken in our immediate, nonideological evaluative impressions. No objective view we can attain could possibly overrule our subjective authority in such cases. There can be no reason to reject the appearances here. 43 + 44 + 45 +====Only consequence-based ethics can drive action – neuroimaging shows it’s the most intuitive ethical theory==== 46 +**Greene 07** Professor Joshua Greene of Harvard writes; Greene, J. D. (2007). The secret joke of Kant's soul, in Moral Psychology, Vol. 3: The Neuroscience of Morality: Emotion, Disease, and Development, W. Sinnott-Armstrong, Ed., MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 47 +To summarize, people’s moral judgments appear to be products of at least two different kinds of psychological processes. First, both brain imaging and reaction-time data suggest that there are prepotent negative emotional responses that drive people to disapprove of the personally harmful actions proposed in cases like the footbridge and crying baby dilemmas. These responses are characteristic of deontology, but not of consequentialism. Second, further brain imaging results suggest that “cognitive” psychological processes can compete with the aforementioned emotional processes, driving people to approve of personally harmful moral violations, primarily when there is a strong consequentialist rationale for doing so, as in the crying baby case. The parts of the brain that exhibit increased activity when people make characteristically consequentialist judgments are those that are most closely associated with higher cognitive functions such as executive control (Koechlin et al., 2003; Miller and Cohen, 2001), complex planning (Koechlin, Basso, Pietrini, Panzer, and Grafman, 1999), deductive and inductive reasoning (Goel and Dolan, 2004), taking the long view in economic decision making (McClure, Laibson, Loewenstein, and Cohen., 2004), and so on. Moreover, these brain regions are among those most dramatically expanded in humans compared with other primates (Allman, Hakeem, and Watson, 2002). 48 + 49 + 50 +===Advantage 1: Oppression=== 51 + 52 + 53 +====Free speech eliminates structures of oppression –==== 54 + 55 + 56 +====It allows us to identify racists so that we can persuade them otherwise; this solves the root cause of oppression.==== 57 +ACLU 16. American Civil Liberties Union. ~~For almost 100 years, the ACLU has worked to defend and preserve the individual rights and liberties guaranteed by the Constitution and laws of the United States.~~, "Hate Speech on Campus", ACLU, 2016. https://www.aclu.org/other/hate-speech-campus//AD 58 +Many universities, under pressure to respond to the concerns of those who are the objects of hate, have adopted codes or policies prohibiting speech that offends any group based on race, gender, ethnicity, religion or sexual orientation. That's the wrong response, well-meaning or not. The First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects speech no matter how offensive its content. Speech codes adopted by government-financed state colleges and universities amount to government censorship, in violation of the Constitution. And the ACLU believes that all campuses should adhere to First Amendment principles because academic freedom is a bedrock of education in a free society. How much we value the right of free speech is put to its severest test when the speaker is someone we disagree with most. Speech that deeply offends our morality or is hostile to our way of life warrants the same constitutional protection as other speech because the right of free speech is indivisible: When one of us is denied this right, all of us are denied. Since its founding in 1920, the ACLU has fought for the free expression of all ideas, popular or unpopular. That's the constitutional mandate. Where racist, sexist and homophobic speech is concerned, the ACLU believes that more speech ~-~- not less ~-~- is the best revenge. This is particularly true at universities, whose mission is to facilitate learning through open debate and study, and to enlighten. Speech codes are not the way to go on campuses, where all views are entitled to be heard, explored, supported or refuted. Besides, when hate is out in the open, people can see the problem. Then they can organize effectively to counter bad attitudes, possibly change them, and forge solidarity against the forces of intolerance. College administrators may find speech codes attractive as a quick fix, but as one critic put it: "Verbal purity is not social change." Codes that punish bigoted speech treat only the symptom: The problem itself is bigotry. The ACLU believes that instead of opting for gestures that only appear to cure the disease, universities have to do the hard work of recruitment to increase faculty and student diversity; counseling to raise awareness about bigotry and its history, and changing curricula to institutionalize more inclusive approaches to all subject matter. 59 + 60 + 61 +====Restrictions on hate speech fail – they’ll just repackage the message using a dog-whistle.==== 62 +**Malik 12** (Kenan Malik, I am a writer, lecturer and broadcaster. My latest book is The Quest for a Moral Compass: A Global History of Ethics, "why hate speech should not be banned", April 12, 2012, https://kenanmalik.wordpress.com/2012/04/19/why-hate-speech-should-not-be-banned/) 63 +Kenan Malik: I am not sure that ‘hate speech’ is a particularly useful concept. Much is said and written, of course, that is designed to promote hatred. But it makes little sense to lump it all together in a single category, especially when hatred is such a contested concept. In a sense, hate speech restriction has become a means not of addressing specific issues about intimidation or incitement, but of enforcing general social regulation. This is why if you look at hate speech laws across the world, there is no consistency about what constitutes hate speech. Britain bans abusive, insulting, and threatening speech. Denmark and Canada ban speech that is insulting and degrading. India and Israel ban speech that hurts religious feelings and incites racial and religious hatred. In Holland, it is a criminal offense deliberately to insult a particular group. Australia prohibits speech that offends, insults, humiliates, or intimidates individuals or groups. Germany bans speech that violates the dignity of, or maliciously degrades or defames, a group. And so on. In each case, the law defines hate speech in a different way. One response might be to say: Let us define hate speech much more tightly. I think, however, that the problem runs much deeper. Hate speech restriction is a means not of tackling bigotry but of rebranding certain, often obnoxious, ideas or arguments as immoral. It is a way of making certain ideas illegitimate without bothering politically to challenge them. And that is dangerous. 64 + 65 +====Spillover effect – challenging oppression in everyday discussions is key to shaping larger cultural landscapes.==== 66 +**Malik 2** (Kenan Malik, I am a writer, lecturer and broadcaster. My latest book is The Quest for a Moral Compass: A Global History of Ethics, "why hate speech should not be banned", April 12, 2012, https://kenanmalik.wordpress.com/2012/04/19/why-hate-speech-should-not-be-banned/) 67 +Much of what we call hate speech consists, however, of claims that may be contemptible but yet are accepted by many as morally defensible. Hence I am wary of the argument that some sentiments are so immoral they can simply be condemned without being contested. First, such blanket condemnations are often a cover for the inability or unwillingness politically to challenge obnoxious sentiments. Second, in challenging obnoxious sentiments, we are not simply challenging those who spout such views; we are also challenging the potential audience for such views. Dismissing obnoxious or hateful views as not worthy of response may not be the best way of engaging with such an audience. Whether or not an obnoxious claim requires a reply depends, therefore, not simply on the nature of the claim itself, but also on the potential audience for that claim. 68 + 69 + 70 +====This solves – empirics prove you can’t eliminate bigotry by banning it.==== 71 +**Malik 3** (Kenan Malik, I am a writer, lecturer and broadcaster. My latest book is The Quest for a Moral Compass: A Global History of Ethics, "why hate speech should not be banned", April 12, 2012, https://kenanmalik.wordpress.com/2012/04/19/why-hate-speech-should-not-be-banned/) 72 +And in practice, you cannot reduce or eliminate bigotry simply by banning it. You simply let the sentiments fester underground. As Milton once put it, to keep out ‘evil doctrine’ by licensing is ‘like the exploit of that gallant man who thought to pound up the crows by shutting his Park-gate’. Take Britain. In 1965, Britain prohibited incitement to racial hatred as part of its Race Relations Act. The following decade was probably the most racist in British history. It was the decade of ‘Paki-bashing’, when racist thugs would seek out Asians to beat up. It was a decade of firebombings, stabbings, and murders. In the early 1980s, I was organizing street patrols in East London to protect Asian families from racist attacks. Nor were thugs the only problem. Racism was woven into the fabric of public institutions. The police, immigration officials – all were openly racist. In the twenty years between 1969 and 1989, no fewer than thirty-seven blacks and Asians were killed in police custody – almost one every six months. The same number again died in prisons or in hospital custody. When in 1982, cadets at the national police academy were asked to write essays about immigrants, one wrote, ‘Wogs, nignogs and Pakis come into Britain take up our homes, our jobs and our resources and contribute relatively less to our once glorious country. They are, by nature, unintelligent. And can’t at all be educated sufficiently to live in a civilised society of the Western world’. Another wrote that ‘all blacks are pains and should be ejected from society’. So much for incitement laws helping create a more tolerant society. Today, Britain is a very different place. Racism has not disappeared, nor have racist attacks, but the open, vicious, visceral bigotry that disfigured the Britain when I was growing up has largely ebbed away. It has done so not because of laws banning racial hatred but because of broader social changes and because minorities themselves stood up to the bigotry and fought back. Of course, as the British experience shows, hatred exists not just in speech but also has physical consequences. Is it not important, critics of my view ask, to limit the fomenting of hatred to protect the lives of those who may be attacked? In asking this very question, they are revealing the distinction between speech and action. Saying something is not the same as doing it. But, in these post-ideological, postmodern times, it has become very unfashionable to insist on such a distinction. In blurring the distinction between speech and action, what is really being blurred is the idea of human agency and of moral responsibility. Because lurking underneath the argument is the idea that people respond like automata to words or images. But people are not like robots. They think and reason and act on their thoughts and reasoning. Words certainly have an impact on the real world, but that impact is mediated through human agency. Racists are, of course, influenced by racist talk. It is they, however, who bear responsibility for translating racist talk into racist action. Ironically, for all the talk of using free speech responsibly, the real consequence of the demand for censorship is to moderate the responsibility of individuals for their actions. Having said that, there are clearly circumstances in which there is a direct connection between speech and action, where someone’s words have directly led to someone else taking action. Such incitement should be illegal, but it has to be tightly defined. There has to be both a direct link between speech and action and intent on the part of the speaker for that particular act of violence to be carried out. Incitement to violence in the context of hate speech should be as tightly defined as in ordinary criminal cases. In ordinary criminal cases, incitement is, rightly, difficult legally to prove. The threshold for liability should not be lowered just because hate speech is involved. 73 + 74 + 75 +====Perceived assault on free speech drives voters to the right wing – that’s how Trump got elected president.==== 76 +**Soave 16** (Robby Soave, Associate editor at Reason.com, enjoys writing about college news, education policy, criminal justice reform, and television, "Trump Won Because Leftist Political Correctness Inspired a Terrifying Backlash", Nov. 9, 2016, http://reason.com/blog/2016/11/09/trump-won-because-leftist-political-corr 77 +Trump won because of a cultural issue that flies under the radar and remains stubbornly difficult to define, but is nevertheless hugely important to a great number of Americans: political correctness. More specifically, Trump won because he convinced a great number of Americans that he would destroy political correctness. I have tried to call attention to this issue for years. I have warned that political correctness actually is a problem on college campuses, where the far-left has gained institutional power and used it to punish people for saying or thinking the wrong thing. And ever since Donald Trump became a serious threat to win the GOP presidential primaries, I have warned that a lot of people, both on campus and off it, were furious about political-correctness-run-amok—so furious that they would give power to any man who stood in opposition to it. I have watched this play out on campus after campus. I have watched dissident student groups invite Milo Yiannopoulos to speak—not because they particularly agree with his views, but because he denounces censorship and undermines political correctness. I have watched students cheer his theatrics, his insulting behavior, and his narcissism solely because the enforcers of campus goodthink are outraged by it. It's not about his ideas, or policies. It's not even about him. It's about vengeance for social oppression. Trump has done to America what Yiannopoulos did to campus. This is a view Yiannopoulos shares. When I spoke with him about Trump's success months ago, he told me, "Nobody votes for Trump or likes Trump on the basis of policy positions. That's a misunderstanding of what the Trump phenomenon is." He described Trump as "an icon of irreverent resistance to political correctness." Correctly, I might add. What is political correctness? It's notoriously hard to define. I recently appeared on a panel with CNN's Sally Kohn, who described political correctness as being polite and having good manners. That's fine—it can mean different things to different people. I like manners. I like being polite. That's not what I'm talking about. The segment of the electorate who flocked to Trump because he positioned himself as "an icon of irreverent resistance to political correctness" think it means this: smug, entitled, elitist, privileged leftists jumping down the throats of ordinary folks who aren't up-to-date on the latest requirements of progressive society. Example: A lot of people think there are only two genders—boy and girl. Maybe they're wrong. Maybe they should change that view. Maybe it's insensitive to the trans community. Maybe it even flies in the face of modern social psychology. But people think it. Political correctness is the social force that holds them in contempt for that, or punishes them outright. If you're a leftist reading this, you probably think that's stupid. You probably can't understand why someone would get so bent out of shape about being told their words are hurtful. You probably think it's not a big deal and these people need to get over themselves. Who's the delicate snowflake now, huh? you're probably thinking. I'm telling you: your failure to acknowledge this miscalculation and adjust your approach has delivered the country to Trump. There's a related problem: the boy-who-cried-wolf situation. I was happy to see a few liberals, like Bill Maher, owning up to it. Maher admitted during a recent show that he was wrong to treat George Bush, Mitt Romney, and John McCain like they were apocalyptic threats to the nation: it robbed him of the ability to treat Trump more seriously. The left said McCain was a racist supported by racists, it said Romney was a racist supported by racists, but when an actually racist Republican came along—and racists cheered him—it had lost its ability to credibly make that accusation. This is akin to the political-correctness-run-amok problem: both are examples of the left's horrible over-reach during the Obama years. The leftist drive to enforce a progressive social vision was relentless, and it happened too fast. I don't say this because I'm opposed to that vision—like most members of the under-30 crowd, I have no problem with gender neutral pronouns—I say this because it inspired a backlash that gave us Trump. My liberal critics rolled their eyes when I complained about political correctness. I hope they see things a little more clearly now. The left sorted everyone into identity groups and then told the people in the poorly-educated-white-male identity group that that's the only bad one. It mocked the members of this group mercilessly. It punished them for not being woke enough. It called them racists. It said their video games were sexist. It deployed Lena Dunham to tell them how horrible they were. Lena Dunham! I warned that political-correctness-run-amok and liberal overreach would lead to a counter-revolution if unchecked. That counter-revolution just happened. There is a cost to depriving people of the freedom (in both the legal and social senses) to speak their mind. The presidency just went to the guy whose main qualification, according to his supporters, is that he isn't afraid to speak his. 78 + 79 + 80 +===Advantage 2: Sexual Assault=== 81 + 82 + 83 +====Teachers are dissuaded from teaching rape law due to a culture of fear surrounding political correctness==== 84 +**Fisher 16** (Anthony L. Fisher, Dec 13, 2016, "Opposition to "offensive" speech on campuses will ultimately burn dissidents", http://www.vox.com/the-big-idea/2016/12/13/13931524/free-speech-pen-america-campus-censorship) 85 +PEN America, the literary and human rights association that lists as one of its core principles a commitment to "protect open expression in the United States and worldwide," set out to explore the state of free speech on the nation’s campuses — re-examining several high-profile incidents and controversies. While not comprehensive, the report, published this fall, is impressively thorough, treating much of its content as teachable case studies, rather than a set of self-affirming anecdotes. Some press coverage, however, suggested that the PEN America report — titled “And Campus For All: Diversity, Inclusion, and Freedom of Speech at U.S. Universities" — had exonerated campuses from the charge that they insufficiently protect free speech, and that it sided with students who think "cries of ‘free speech’ are too often used as a cudgel against them,” as the New York Times put it. The report itself contributes in a small way to this confused take, largely due to a single line in its conclusion which (improbably) asserts that there is no “pervasive ‘crisis’ for free speech on campus.” But that same report exhaustively details dozens of cases where certain speech was inappropriately muted on campus. More examples: Skidmore College’s Bias Response Group determined that the posting of Donald Trump's official campaign motto "Make America Great Again" in classrooms where women and people of color worked constituted "racialized, targeted attacks." A tenured associate professor at Louisiana State University, Teresa Buchanan, was dismissed for the offenses of using off-color language (including "fuck no”) in class, and off campus (where she said “pussy” in a conversation with another teacher). Like the University of Colorado’s Adler, Buchanan was deemed to have created a "hostile learning environment." The authors write of the "chilling effect" such administrative actions have on professors who fear reprisals for unintentional offense, and as a result, will avoid certain subjects, including rape law and even some aspects of Greek mythology, out of an abundance of caution. 86 + 87 + 88 +====Two impacts:==== 89 + 90 + 91 +====Lack of rape law education hurts survivors of sexual assault – they won’t win court cases==== 92 +**Soave 14** (Robby Soave, Dec. 16, 2014, "Profs Have Stopped Teaching Rape Law Now That Everything 'Triggers' Students", http://reason.com/blog/2014/12/16/profs-have-stopped-teaching-rape-law-now) 93 +Students seem more anxious about classroom discussion, and about approaching the law of sexual violence in particular, than they have ever been in my eight years as a law professor. Student organizations representing women’s interests now routinely advise students that they should not feel pressured to attend or participate in class sessions that focus on the law of sexual violence, and which might therefore be traumatic. These organizations also ask criminal-law teachers to warn their classes that the rape-law unit might “trigger” traumatic memories. Individual students often ask teachers not to include the law of rape on exams for fear that the material would cause them to perform less well. One teacher I know was recently asked by a student not to use the word “violate” in class—as in “Does this conduct violate the law?”—because the word was triggering. Some students have even suggested that rape law should not be taught because of its potential to cause distress. Suk—who is one of the signatories on this statement of opposition to Harvard's illiberal sexual assault policy—goes on to note that the very real, terrible consequence of not teaching rape law will be the proliferation of lawyers ill-equipped to deal with such matters. Victims of sexual assault deserve competent legal representation; the legal system needs prosecutors, defense attorneys, and judges who have vigorously studied the nuances of rape adjudication. Social progress on all these fronts will be rolled back if law professors stop educating students about rape. That would be a travesty of justice. 94 + 95 + 96 +====Stunts sexual assault activism on campus and reduces awareness of the issue==== 97 +**Baker 15** (Katie J.M. Baker, Apr. 3, 2015, "Teaching Rape Law In The Age Of The Trigger Warning", https://www.buzzfeed.com/katiejmbaker/teaching-rape-law-in-the-age-of-the-trigger-warning?utm'term=.par3Gy4V7~~#.gcKwr03L4) 98 +One criminal law professor at the college was so upset that she told the administration she would rather not teach rape law at all than be forced to teach it in a manner based on one student’s “deeply held personal feelings.” The professor, who would only speak anonymously, has decades of experience studying rape law and said she planned to discuss everything from the effects of trauma to campus rape activism. Instead, she spent class time reassuring students that she would not treat rape differently than other sensitive subjects. Some of her students were thankful for the email, she said, but others were confused since it came out of nowhere and was endorsed by the school. One distraught student told the professor that she was a rape survivor and now had no idea if she would be able to handle whatever was coming next. Some professors told BuzzFeed News that they had no problem incorporating their students’ concerns. Brooklyn Law professor Bennett Capers said he begins his section on rape law by reminding students that it’s a particularly sensitive subject and providing them with sexual assault statistics. “On the first day, a lot of students are reluctant to engage on the subject, but by the second, we have some of the most rewarding conversation I’ve had all semester,” he said. Capers also tells his students that rape law is a particularly fascinating area because it’s currently evolving. “They can push the law in new directions as they become lawyers,” he said. Deborah Tuerkheimer, a former sex crimes prosecutor and professor at Northwestern Law School, said she believes it’s up to the professor to manage the class well. She’s never had any problems. “I think students can make comments that have the potential to be deeply upsetting, but that can be navigated,” she said. Other professors aren’t as quick to bend to students’ requests for sensitivity. Professor Suk told BuzzFeed News that she wrote her New Yorker piece because she was hearing about more students who objected to or absented themselves from the classroom discussion on rape law than ever before. “I wanted to reflect on why, just at a time when sexual assault, particularly on campus, is getting so much attention, we might see a shrinking away from classroom discussion of these topics,” she told BuzzFeed News. Suk said she thinks the shift is indicative of a new form of “social suffering” as classroom experience that goes beyond the pain of individual victims of sexual violence. “The social designation of topics and forms of discussion as ‘traumatic’ has real consequences for classroom intellectual exploration,” she said. 99 + 100 + 101 + 102 +===Advantage 3: Education=== 103 + 104 + 105 +====A~~ Rights Precedent: restrictions on free speech creates a dangerous slippery slope. Universities should not be the arbiters of communication.==== 106 +*Climate change NC, Sustainability Florida 107 +**Fisher 16** (Anthony L. Fisher, Dec 13, 2016, "Opposition to "offensive" speech on campuses will ultimately burn dissidents", http://www.vox.com/the-big-idea/2016/12/13/13931524/free-speech-pen-america-campus-censorship) 108 +In perhaps the most cogent line of the entire report, the authors write: “Overreaction to problematic speech may impoverish the environment for speech for all.” In the name of social justice, some students are demanding administrators become the arbiters of what speech is legitimate and what isn’t. These students don’t seem to grasp that by granting authority figures the power to adjudicate which speakers have the right to be heard, they will inevitably find their own speech silenced when opponents claim offense, fear, or discomfort. Calls for crackdowns on “offensive” speech inevitably boomerang It’s already happening. Just ask the Palestinian activists whose boycott campaigns against Israel have been deemed hate speech by a number of public universities, and whose future political activities could be endangered by an act of Congress. Just this month, the Senate unanimously passed the "Anti-Semitism Awareness Act,” which directs the Department of Education to use the bill's contents as a guideline when adjudicating complaints of anti-Semitism on campus. Among the speech-chilling components of the bill, the political (and subjective) act of judging Israel by an "unfair double standard" could be considered hate speech. To cite other examples of unintended consequences of the crackdown on “offensive” speech, a black student at the University of Michigan was punished for calling another student “white trash,” and conservative law students at Georgetown claimed they were “traumatized” when an email critical of deceased Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia landed in their inboxes. The PEN America report also notes the Foundation for Individual Rights’ analysis of hundreds of campuses with “severely restrictive” speech codes. While a number of these campuses don't aggressively enforce their speech codes, the rules remain on the books; more than a dozen such codes have been overturned in the courts. What’s even more concerning is the increasingly popular notion that some ideas, such as opposition to abortion, should simply be “non-platformed" — that is, deemed unworthy of even being heard on campus. Although the trend of denying contentious speakers such as former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice or refugee-turned-Dutch politician and critic of Islam Ayaan Hirsi Ali public platforms by "disinviting" them from campus is disconcerting, it is not censorship. However, a pro-choice group physically blocking the display of a pro-life group on the campus of the University of Georgia is a form of censorship. As is the case of University of California-Santa Barbara professor Mireille Miller-Young, who assaulted a young woman holding a pro-life placard including graphic imagery in a "free speech" zone on campus and stole her sign. When the young woman objected to the theft of her property, Miller-Young replied, "I may be a thief, but you're a terrorist." Like it or not, almost half of all Americans consider themselves pro-life. Banning their perspective from campus won't win over converts, and it’s both immoral and counterproductive to declare completely legitimate political perspectives beyond the pale. Think of anti-war protests or demonstrations in support of integration when both causes were broadly unpopular, and then try to consider a majority on campus declaring their school a "safe space" from such "offensive" expressions of free speech. 109 + 110 + 111 +====B~~ Free speech prepares students for the real world by reducing academic insulation.==== 112 +**Vivanco 16** (Leonor Vivanco, August 25^^th^^, 2016, "U. of C. tells incoming freshmen it does not support 'trigger warnings' or 'safe spaces'", http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/breaking/ct-university-of-chicago-safe-spaces-letter-met-20160825-story.html3 113 +"It is not the proper role of the University to attempt to shield individuals from ideas and opinions they find unwelcome, disagreeable, or even deeply offensive," the report states. "Although the University greatly values civility, and although all members of the University community share in the responsibility for maintaining a climate of mutual respect, concerns about civility and mutual respect can never be used as a justification for closing off discussion of ideas, however offensive or disagreeable those ideas may be to some members of our community." The university is preparing students for the real world and would not be serving them by shielding them from unpleasantness, said Geoffrey Stone, chair of the committee, law professor and past provost at the U. of C. "The right thing to do is empower the students, help them understand how to fight, combat and respond, not to insulate them from things they will have to face later," Stone said. While the university doesn't support, require or encourage trigger warnings, it does not prohibit them, he added. Professors are still free to alert students to certain material if they choose to do so. Jane Kirtley, a media ethics and law professor at the University of Minnesota, called U. of C.'s move "refreshing." She said colleges should resist setting limits on what views and opinions are acceptable to air in open forum and should encourage students to discuss things they find uncomfortable. "If universities are not providing platforms for people to be offensive, then I don't think that they're doing part of their job," Kirtley said. "If listening to Donald Trump or Hillary Clinton is going to make your blood pressure go up 400 points, then fine, don't listen to them. But that doesn't mean you can say we can't have Donald Trump or Hillary Clinton speaking on campus because it would be offensive to even know they were talking." Another Midwestern institution has followed the University of Chicago's lead. In 2015, the board of trustees at Purdue University in Indiana endorsed the principles articulated in the U. of C. report. "Our commitment to open inquiry is not new, but adopting these principles provides a clear signal of our pledge to live by this commitment and these standards," board Chairman Tom Spurgeon said in a statement at the time. 114 + 115 + 116 +====Three impacts:==== 117 + 118 + 119 +====Preparation for the real world gives students the tools necessary to fight oppression for life; that outweighs in the long run.==== 120 + 121 + 122 +====An atmosphere of academic openness is a prerequisite to knowledge.==== 123 +**Jacobson 16** (Daniel Jacobson (Professor of Philosophy at the University of Michigan). "Freedom of Speech under Assault on Campus." Cato Institute. 30 August 2016. https://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/freedom-speech-under-assault- campus~~#full 124 +Mill held that an atmosphere of intellectual freedom not only cultivates genius but is also a prerequisite for even commonplace knowledge. For our beliefs to be justified, we must be able to respond to the best arguments against them. Yet people naturally dislike what Mill called adverse discussion—that is, exposure to opposing arguments—and tend to avoid it. Hence, they are led to argue against straw men as much from ignorance as dishonesty. For those reasons and others, Mill defended freedom of speech in uncom- promising terms: “There ought to exist the fullest liberty of professing and discussing, as a matter of ethical conviction, any doctrine,” regardless of its falsity, immorality, or even harmfulness.4 Mill’s arguments for free speech anticipated several psychological phenomena that are now widely recognized: epistemic closure, group polarization, and confirmation bias, as well as simple conformism. Epistemic closure is the tendency to restrict one’s sources of information, including other people, to those largely in agreement with one’s views, thereby avoiding adverse discussion. Group polarization describes how like-minded people grow more extreme in their beliefs when unchecked by the presence of dissenters. (Whence Nietzsche: “Madness is rare in individuals—but in groups, parties, nations, and ages it is the rule.”5) Confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on evidence that supports what we already believe and to discount contrary evidence. These phenomena are widespread and well documented, and they all tend to undermine the justification of our beliefs. Hence, the toleration of unpopular opinions constitutes a prerequisite for knowledge. Yet such toleration amounts only to its immunity to punishment, not its protection from criticism. 125 + 126 + 127 +====Lack of counter-narratives produce echo-chambers that sustains existing power structures whilst deluding liberals otherwise.==== 128 +**Sunstein 12** (Cass R. Sunstein. Sep 17, 2012. "Breaking up the echo". http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/18/opinion/balanced-news-reports-may-only-inflame.html?'r=0) 129 +It is well known that when likeminded people get together, they tend to end up thinking a more extreme version of what they thought before they started to talk. The same kind of echochamber effect can happen as people get news from various media. Liberals viewing MSNBC or reading leftofcenter blogs may well end up embracing liberal talking points even more firmly; Conservative fans of Fox News may well react in similar fashion on the right. The result can be a situation in which is that beliefs do not merely harden but migrate toward the extreme ends of the political spectrum. As current events in the Middle East demonstrate, discussions among likeminded people can ultimately produce violence. What explains this? The answer is called “biased assimilation,” which means that people assimilate new information selectively in a selective fashion. When people get endorsing information that supports what they initially thought, they give it considerable weight. When they get and dismissing information that undermines their initial beliefs, they tend to dismiss it. In this light, it is understandable that when people begin with opposing initial beliefs on, say, the death penalty, balanced information can heighten their initial disagreement. Those who tend to favor capital punishment credit the information that supports their original view and dismiss the opposing information. The same happens on the other side. As a result, divisions widen. This natural human tendency explains why it’s so hard to dislodge false rumors and factual errors. Corrections can even be selfdefeating, leading people to stronger commitment to their erroneous beliefs. The news here is not encouraging. In the face of entrenched social divisions, there’s a risk that presentations that carefully explore both sides will be counterproductive. And when a group, responding to false information, becomes more strident, efforts to correct the record may make things worse. Can anything be done? There is no simple term for the answer, so let’s make one up: surprising validators. However People tend to dismiss information that would falsify their convictions. But they may reconsider their views if the information comes from a like-minded source they cannot dismiss. People are most likely to find a source credible if they closely identify with it or begin in essential agreement with it. In such cases, their reaction is not, “how predictable and uninformative that someone like that would think something so evil and foolish,” but instead, they say “if someone like that disagrees with me, maybe I had better rethink.” Our initial convictions are more apt to be shaken if it’s not easy to dismiss the source as biased, confused, selfinterested or simply mistaken. This is one reason that seemingly irrelevant characteristics, like appearance, or taste in food and drink, can have a big impact on credibility. Such characteristics can suggest that the validators are in fact surprising — that they are “like” the people to whom they are speaking. It follows that turncoats, real or apparent, can be immensely persuasive. If civil rights leaders oppose affirmative action, or if wellknown climate change skeptics say that they were wrong, people are more likely to change their views. Here, then, is a lesson for all those who provide information. What matters most may be not what is said, but who, exactly, is saying it. - EntryDate
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... ... @@ -1,0 +1,146 @@ 1 +=1AC – Stock= 2 + 3 + 4 +==Framework== 5 + 6 + 7 +====The role of the ballot is to vote for the debater that presents the best governmental policy option – key to out of round advocacy skills. Role playing as public actors shatters apathy and political alienation which is critical to check oppression ==== 8 +**Mitchell 2000**. Gordon Mitchell, Associate Professor of Communication at University of Pittsburgh, Winter 2000, "Stimulated Public Argument As Pedagogical Play on Worlds", Argumentation and Advocacy, vol 36, no 3, pq 9 +When we assume the posture of the other in dramatic performance, we tap into 10 +… 11 +that highlight this component of students' self-identities carry significant emancipatory potential. 12 + 13 + 14 +====I value morality, as per the evaluative term, ‘ought’ in the resolution.==== 15 + 16 + 17 +====First, to evaluate ethical judgments we must interrogate ontologies of exclusion to filter out ethical biases.==== 18 +**Butler 9** (Judith Butler, "Frames of War: When is Life Grievable?" Jan 1st 2009, Pg.138, http://books.google.com/books/about/Frames'of'War.html?id=ga7hAAAAMAAJ) 19 +We ask such normative questions as if we know what we mean by the subjects 20 +… 21 +those subjects who will be eligible for recognition and those who will not. 22 + 23 + 24 +====Thus, the standard is combatting structural violence.==== 25 + 26 + 27 +====Prefer consequence-based frameworks:==== 28 + 29 + 30 +====1~~ Intent and means-based frameworks reflect privilege and decenter oppressed voices==== 31 +**Utt ’13. **Jamie Utt is a writer and a diversity and inclusion consultant and sexual violence prevention educator, "Intent vs. Impact: Why Your Intentions Don’t Really Matter," July 30, 2013 32 +Imagine for a moment that you’re standing with your friends in a park, enjoying 33 +AND 34 +And we can do our best to move forward by acting more accountably. 35 + 36 + 37 +====2~~ Experience is epistemic – it is how we empirically ground our existence. Pain is universally bad and pleasure is universally good.==== 38 +**Nagel 86** (Thomas ~~"The View From Nowhere", 1986~~) 39 +I shall defend the unsurprising claim that sensory pleasure is good and pain bad, 40 +… 41 +such cases. There can be no reason to reject the appearances here. 42 + 43 + 44 +====3~~ Intentions and states of being are non-falsifiable and can only be informed by hypothetical consequences==== 45 + 46 + 47 +====4~~ Life is a pre-requisite to agency and freedom – that justifies exceptions to hyper-individualist ethics==== 48 + 49 + 50 +====5~~ Discussions of free speech and the constitution mandate a consequentialist approach==== 51 +**Goldberg 15** (Erica Goldberg is a Climenko Fellow and Lecturer on Law for the Harvard Law School and Assistant Professor for the Ohio Northern Law School. "FREE SPEECH CONSEQUENTIALISM," Columbia Law Review Vol. 116:687. August 17, 2015. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract'id=2645869) //WW JA 1/5/16 52 +Even scholars who favor what they deem nonconsequentialist theories of free speech, and who 53 +… 54 +, when free speech doctrine intersects with both criminal and tort law.23 55 + 56 + 57 +==Plan== 58 + 59 + 60 +====Plan Text: Public colleges and universities in the United States should not restrict any constitutionally protected speech.==== 61 + 62 + 63 +====I can clarify questions about implementation in cx.==== 64 + 65 + 66 +==Advantage 1 is Echo Chambers== 67 + 68 + 69 +====Campus speech codes are controlled by liberals – they utilize them to exclude conservatives from campuses. This creates liberal echo chambers wherein liberals insulate themselves from conservative ideas, thus never learning how to contest opposing views.==== 70 +**Powers 15.** Kirsten Powers is a columnist for The Daily Beast. She is also a contributor to USA Today and a Fox News political analyst. She served in the Clinton administration from 1993 to 1998 and has worked in New York state and city politics. Her writing has been published in The Wall Street Journal, USA Today, New York Post, The New York Observer, Salon.com, Elle magazine, and American Prospect online., 5-11-2015, "How Liberals Ruined College," Daily Beast, http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/05/11/how-liberals-have-ruined-college.html //RS 71 +The root of nearly every free-speech infringement on campuses across the country is 72 +… 73 +even if their actions would likely not constitute a violation of university policy." 74 + 75 + 76 +====Rights Precedent: restrictions on free speech creates a dangerous slippery slope. Universities should not be the arbiters of communication.==== 77 +*Climate change NC, Sustainability Florida 78 +**Fisher 16** (Anthony L. Fisher, Dec 13, 2016, "Opposition to "offensive" speech on campuses will ultimately burn dissidents", http://www.vox.com/the-big-idea/2016/12/13/13931524/free-speech-pen-america-campus-censorship) 79 +In perhaps the most cogent line of the entire report, the authors write: 80 +… 81 +"safe space" from such "offensive" expressions of free speech. 82 + 83 + 84 +**====The 1AC is key to challenge the broader culture of bigotry – restrictions on hate speech fail – multiple warrants.====** 85 +**Majeed 9.** Azhar Majeed, a native of Grosse Pointe, Michigan, received a B.A. in Political Science with a minor in History from the University of Michigan in 2004. He is also a 2007 graduate of the University of Michigan Law School. As an undergraduate, his academic interests included comparative constitutional law and political philosophy, particularly from the time period of the Enlightenment. During law school, Azhar represented the University of Michigan at the 2006 Tulane International Moot Court competition. Azhar was one of FIRE’s inaugural Robert H. Jackson Legal Fellows and was also a FIRE legal intern in 2005. , 11-18-2009, "Defying the Constitution: The Rise, Persistence, And Prevalence Of Campus Speech Codes," FIRE, https://www.thefire.org/defying-the-constitution-the-rise-persistence-and-prevalence-of-campus-speech-codes/ //RS ***BRACKETS IN ORIGINAL*** 86 +The fourth major argument in defense of speech codes is that they combat the existence 87 +… 88 +cannot be justified under the rationale of eliminating societal prejudice and advancing equality. 89 + 90 + 91 +==Advantage 2 is Sexual Assault== 92 + 93 + 94 +===Scenario 1 – Rape Law=== 95 + 96 + 97 +====Teachers are dissuaded from teaching rape law due to a culture of fear surrounding liberal speech codes.==== 98 +**Fisher 2** (Anthony L. Fisher, Dec 13, 2016, "Opposition to "offensive" speech on campuses will ultimately burn dissidents", http://www.vox.com/the-big-idea/2016/12/13/13931524/free-speech-pen-america-campus-censorship) 99 +PEN America, the literary and human rights association that lists as one of its 100 +… 101 +even some aspects of Greek mythology, out of an abundance of caution. 102 + 103 + 104 +====Lack of rape law education hurts survivors of sexual assault – they won’t win court cases==== 105 +**Soave 14** (Robby Soave, Dec. 16, 2014, "Profs Have Stopped Teaching Rape Law Now That Everything 'Triggers' Students", http://reason.com/blog/2014/12/16/profs-have-stopped-teaching-rape-law-now) 106 +Students seem more anxious about classroom discussion, and about approaching the law of sexual 107 +… 108 +stop educating students about rape. That would be a travesty of justice. 109 + 110 + 111 +===Scenario 2 – Student Journalism=== 112 + 113 + 114 +====Universities continuously abuse legislation to hide sexual violence by denying information to reporters, redacting information about the perpetrator, and suing students who disclose reports – Student Journalism is key to sexual assault justice. ==== 115 +**Saul 12-2-16** ~~Stephanie Saul is a reporter for The New York Times and a recipient of the Pulitzer Prize in journalism. Saul attended public schools in New Albany, where she showed an early interest in journalism as editor of the high school newspaper. At Ole Miss, Saul was on the staff of the Daily Mississippian and the yearbook. She was a member of Phi Kappa Phi, the academic honor society, and Kappa Delta social sorority. After graduating in 1975 with a B.A. in journalism, Saul joined The Clarion-Ledgeras a reporter, covering Mississippi government and the state legislature. A succession of reporting jobs at other newspapers led her to The New York Timesin 2005, where she is currently a member of the newspaper’s investigative reporting team. "Campus Press vs. Colleges: Kentucky Suit Highlights Free-Speech Fight,". 12-2-2016. New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/02/us/kentucky-student-journalism-free-speech.html~~//roman 116 +The confidential informant had an explosive tip for the University of Kentucky's campus newspaper: 117 +… 118 +First Amendment Center endowed by the venerable Scripps Howard broadcasting and newspaper chain. 119 + 120 + 121 +==Underview== 122 + 123 + 124 +====To clarify, the First Amendment doesn’t permit meaningless obscenity, child pornography, expressions that in and of itself causes injury, and remarks intended to cause violence==== 125 +**Ruane 14** ~~Kathleen Anne Ruane – Legislative Attorney. Her report was published by the Congressional Research Service, which is a branch of government, "Freedom of Speech and Press: Exceptions to the First Amendment", https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/95-815.pdf,pgs. 1-5~~//roman 126 +The First Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that "Congress shall make no 127 +… 128 +report will be updated periodically to reflect new developments in the case law. 129 + 130 + 131 +====Ask if I will meet your interp in cx; this avoids unnecessary theory- we can work something out; this allows for greater substantive debate which is the only form of education which is unique to debate. Grant me an auto I meet on theory if the interp isn’t checked in cross-ex to discourage nonchecking.==== 132 + 133 + 134 +====Abstract theorizing without providing material solutions to problems turns itself==== 135 +**Bryant 12** (Levi Bryant, professor of philosophy at Collin College, "Underpants Gnomes: A Critique of the Academic Left," 11/11/2012, http://larvalsubjects.wordpress.com/2012/11/11/underpants-gnomes-a-critique-of-the-academic-left/) 136 +**edited for gendered language 137 +But finally, and worst of all, us 138 +… 139 +alternatives. Instead we prefer to shout and denounce. Good luck with that 140 + 141 + 142 +==== Particularism is good—root cause claims and focus on overarching structures ignore application to material injustice.==== 143 +Gregory Fernando Pappas 16 ~~Texas AandM University~~ "The Pragmatists’ Approach to Injustice", The Pluralist Volume 11, Number 1, Spring 2016, BE 144 +The pragmatists’ approach should be distinguished from nonideal theories whose starting point seems to be 145 +… 146 +in making us see aspects of injustices we would not otherwise appreciate.15 - EntryDate
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... ... @@ -1,0 +1,18 @@ 1 +==DA== 2 + 3 + 4 +====Endowments are high now but dropping rapidly - protests are alienating alumni donors, who are of older generations==== 5 +**Hartocollis 8/4** (Anemona Hartocollis. Anemona Hartocollis is a metro reporter who began covering courts for The New York Times in October 2005. On the courts beat, she has written front-page stories about the trial of accused Gambino crime family leader John Gotti, which ended in a hung jury, and the trial of 18 "grannies" acquitted of disorderly conduct during a demonstration against the war in Iraq. From 2002 until 2005, Ms. Hartocollis wrote the "Coping" column in the Sunday City section, a weekly column about life in New York City. From 1997 until 2002, she covered education for the Times, writing about policy issues like whether parents in Greenwich Village should be allowed to pay for a public-school teacher out of their own pockets and the pros and cons of testing school children. Before coming to the Times, Ms. Hartocollis had been a reporter and feature writer for The New York Daily News, New York Newsday, The Philadelphia Inquirer, The Detroit News, The Staten Island Advance and Flatbush Life, a weekly paper in Brooklyn. She has freelanced for Martha Stewart Living and LIFE magazines. Ms. Hartocollis was born on November 3, 1955 in Lausanne, Switzerland. She received her bachelor’s degree in comparative literature from Harvard University in 1977. She has won the Newswomen’s Club of New York Front Page Award (twice); the New York State AP Writing Contest, first place for continuing coverage of education (1996), first place features (1992) and third place features (1995); the Society of Silurians investigative reporting award and the Deadline Club of New York award, among others. Ms. Hartocollis is the author of "Seven Days of Possibilities: One Teacher, 24 Kids, and the Music that Changed Their Lives Forever," (Public Affairs, 2004) a book about a young music teacher in the Bronx, which began as a series of stories in the Times. "College Students Protest, Alumni’s Fondness Fades And Checks Shrink". 08-04-2016. New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/05/us/college-protests-alumni-donations.html?'r=1) //TruLe 6 +Scott MacConnell cherishes the memory of his years at Amherst College, where he discovered his future métier as a theatrical designer. But protests on campus over cultural and racial sensitivities last year soured his feelings. Now Mr. MacConnell, who graduated in 1960, is expressing his discontent through his wallet. In June, he cut the college out of his will. “As an alumnus of the college, I feel that I have been lied to, patronized and basically dismissed as an old, white bigot who is insensitive to the needs and feelings of the current college community,” Mr. MacConnell, 77, wrote in a letter to the college’s alumni fund in December, when he first warned that he was reducing his support to the college to a token $5. A backlash from alumni is an unexpected aftershock of the campus disruptions of the last academic year. Although fund-raisers are still gauging the extent of the effect on philanthropy, some colleges — particularly small, elite liberal arts institutions — have reported a decline in donations, accompanied by a laundry list of complaints. Alumni from a range of generations say they are baffled by today’s college culture. Among their laments: Students are too wrapped up in racial and identity politics. They are allowed to take too many frivolous courses. They have repudiated the heroes and traditions of the past by judging them by today’s standards rather than in the context of their times. Fraternities are being unfairly maligned, and men are being demonized by sexual assault investigations. And university administrations have been too meek in addressing protesters whose messages have seemed to fly in the face of free speech. Scott C. Johnston, who graduated from Yale in 1982, said he was on campus last fall when activists tried to shut down a free speech conference, “because apparently they missed irony class that day.” He recalled the Yale student who was videotaped screaming at a professor, Nicholas Christakis, that he had failed “to create a place of comfort and home” for students in his capacity as the head of a residential college. A rally at New Haven Superior Court demanding justice for Corey Menafee, an African-American dining hall worker at Yale’s Calhoun College who was charged with breaking a window pane that depicted black slaves carrying cotton. CreditPeter Hvizdak/New Haven Register, via Associated Press “I don’t think anything has damaged Yale’s brand quite like that,” said Mr. Johnston, a founder of an internet start-up and a former hedge fund manager. “This is not your daddy’s liberalism.” “The worst part,” he continued, “is that campus administrators are wilting before the activists like flowers.” Yale College’s alumni fund was flat between this year and last, according to Karen Peart, a university spokeswoman. Among about 35 small, selective liberal arts colleges belonging to the fund-raising organization Staff, or Sharing the Annual Fund Fundamentals, that recently reported their initial annual fund results for the 2016 fiscal year, 29 percent were behind 2015 in dollars, and 64 percent were behind in donors, according to a steering committee member, Scott Kleinheksel of Claremont McKenna College in California. His school, which was also the site of protests, had a decline in donor participation but a rise in giving. At Amherst, the amount of money given by alumni dropped 6.5 percent for the fiscal year that ended June 30, and participation in the alumni fund dropped 1.9 percentage points, to 50.6 percent, the lowest participation rate since 1975, when the college began admitting women, according to the college. The amount raised from big donors decreased significantly. Some of the decline was because of a falloff after two large reunion gifts last year, according to Pete Mackey, a spokesman for Amherst. At Princeton, where protesters unsuccessfully demanded the removal of Woodrow Wilson’s name from university buildings and programs, undergraduate alumni donations dropped 6.6 percent from a record high the year before, and participation dropped 1.9 percentage points, according to the university’s website. A Princeton spokesman, John Cramer, said there was no evidence the drop was connected to campus protests. 7 + 8 +====Endowment funds are key to US competitiveness – ensures college quality==== 9 +**Leigh 14** (Steven R. Leigh. Dean Steve Leigh is a biological anthropologist whose research explores the interactions between humans and the microbes that contribute to digestive efficiency. He also studies human growth with a special emphasis on the growth of the brain. He has extensive experience in archaeology, palaeontology, and anatomy. His teaching at the University of Colorado Boulder focuses on the history of human evolution. Leigh received his B.A. from Northwestern University, M.A. from the University of Tennessee, and Ph.D. from Northwestern University. He has served as dean of Arts and Sciences since 2012. "Endowments And The Future Of Higher Education". 03-04-2014. College Of Arts And Sciences. http://www.colorado.edu/artsandsciences/news-events/message-dean/endowments-and-future-higher-education) //TruLe 10 +These broad trends point directly to the need for CU-Boulder’s College of Arts and Sciences to increase endowment funding across the college. Endowments drive improvements in the quality of an institution and reflect alums, donors and supporters who recognize the importance of research universities in the 21st century. Endowed professorships are the first and most important component of increasing our academic quality. Named chairs recognize significant faculty achievements and help the university support faculty salary and research. CU-Boulder professors are among the most productive in the nation and are heavily recruited by competitors, including Harvard, Yale, Stanford, Cornell, Berkeley, Illinois, UC Irvine and many others. Often, these competitors offer our faculty endowed professorships, conferring prestige and research support. CU must provide its faculty with comparable support to be competitive. A second major area for endowments is student scholarships and, for graduate students, fellowships. A stable source of income that helps pay tuition is the most direct and effective way to offset the costs of education. Endowed scholarships are also effective recruiting tools for admitting the nation’s best to CU. Our dynamic programs, departments and majors are attracting more and more applicants, including the best in the nation. Like faculty support, endowed scholarships and fellowships confer prestige and, most importantly, allow students to focus entirely on academics without balancing jobs and worrying about future loan repayments. Finally, endowment funding for programs greatly enriches the institution, providing capabilities that are difficult to attain when tuition revenue provides the majority of funding. Institutions funded mainly by tuition must make sure that expenditures directly benefit students, which sometimes limits options for innovation and risk-taking. Programmatic funding enables faculty and students to take risks in their research and creative work. For example, in my own field, this might involve traveling to an unexplored region to prospect for human fossils or archaeological sites. Support for high-risk projects allows our faculty and students to develop new areas of knowledge, benefitting society by broadening the capacity of the institution to innovate. The future of higher education, including CU’s future, depends to a large degree on how successfully we can build major endowments. Ultimately, U.S. competitiveness and leadership in the global knowledge economy depends on this as well. For alums, donors and supporters, endowments indelibly affirm the importance of higher education and enduringly preserve its viability and vitality. 11 + 12 +====Innovation solves great power war==== 13 +Taylor 4 (Professor of Political Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Mark, "The Politics of Technological Change: International Relations versus Domestic Institutions," Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 4/1/2004, http://www.scribd.com/doc/46554792/Taylor)) 14 +I. Introduction Technological innovation is of central importance to the study of international relations (IR), affecting almost every aspect of the sub-field. First and foremost, a nation’s technological capability has a significant effect on its economic growth, industrial might, and military prowess; therefore relative national technological capabilities necessarily influence the balance of power between states, and hence have a role in calculations of war and alliance formation. Second, technology and innovative capacity also determine a nation’s trade profile, affecting which products it will import and export, as well as where multinational corporations will base their production facilities. Third, insofar as innovation-driven economic growth both attracts investment and produces surplus capital, a nation’s technological ability will also affect international financial flows and who has power over them. Thus, in broad theoretical terms, technological change is important to the study of IR because of its overall implications for both the relative and absolute power of states. And if theory alone does not convince, then history also tells us that nations on the technological ascent generally experience a corresponding and dramatic change in their global stature and influence, such as Britain during the first industrial revolution, the US United States and Germany during the second industrial revolution, and Japan during the twentieth century. Conversely, great powers which fail to maintain their place at the technological frontier generally drift and fade from influence on international scene. This is not to suggest that technological innovation alone determines international politics, but rather that shifts in both relative and absolute technological capability have a major impact on international relations, and therefore need to be better understood by IR scholars. Indeed, the importance of technological innovation to international relations is seldom disputed by IR theorists. Technology is rarely the sole or overriding causal variable in any given IR theory, but a broad overview of the major theoretical debates reveals the ubiquity of technological causality. For example, from Waltz to Posen, almost all Realists have a place for technology in their explanations of international politics. At the very least, they describe it as an essential part of the distribution of material capabilities across nations, or an indirect source of military doctrine. And for some, like Gilpin quoted above, technology is the very cornerstone of great power domination, and its transfer the main vehicle by which war and change occur in world politics. Jervis tells us that the balance of offensive and defensive military technology affects the incentives for war. Walt agrees, arguing that technological change can alter a state’s aggregate power, and thereby affect both alliance formation and the international balance of threats. Liberals are less directly concerned with technological change, but they must admit that by raising or lowering the costs of using force, technological progress affects the rational attractiveness of international cooperation and regimes. Technology also lowers information and transactions costs and thus increases the applicability of international institutions, a cornerstone of Liberal IR theory. And in fostering flows of trade, finance, and information, technological change can lead to Keohane’s interdependence or Thomas Friedman et al’s globalization. Meanwhile, over at the “third debate”, Constructivists cover the causal spectrum on the issue, from Katzenstein’s “cultural norms” which shape security concerns and thereby affect technological innovation; to Wendt’s “stripped down technological determinism” in which technology inevitably drives nations to form a world state. However most Constructivists seem to favor Wendt, arguing that new technology changes people’s identities within society, and sometimes even creates new cross-national constituencies, thereby affecting international politics. Of course, Marxists tend to see technology as determining all social relations and the entire course of history, though they describe mankind’s major fault lines as running between economic classes rather than nation-states. Finally, Buzan and Little remind us that without advances in the technologies of transportation, communication, production, and war, international systems would not exist in the first place. 15 + 16 +====US leadership prevents great power war and existential governance crises==== 17 +**Brooks et al. 13** (Stephen Brooks, John Ikenberry, and William C. Wohlforth. Stephen Gallup Brooks is an Associate Professor of Government in the Department of Government at Dartmouth College. Gilford John Ikenberry (October 5, 1954) is a theorist of international relations and United States foreign policy, and a professor of Politics and International Affairs in the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University. William Curti Wohlforth (born 1959) is the Daniel Webster Professor of Government in the Dartmouth College Department of Government, of which he was chair for three academic years (2006-2009). He is the author of Elusive Balance: Power and Perceptions during the Cold War (Cornell, 1993) and editor of Witnesses to the End of the Cold War (Johns Hopkins, 1996) and Cold War Endgame: Oral History, Analysis, and Debates (Penn State, 2003). Wohlforth published a seminal article in 1999, challenging the common knowledge at the time that US supremacy following the end of the Cold War is expected to be short-lived. He is linked to the Neoclassical realism-school and known for his work on American unipolarity, especially in collaboration with Stephen Brooks. Together they have published several articles and a book, World Out of Balance: International Relations Theory and the Challenge of American Primacy. Wohlforth was Editor-in-chief of Security Studies (journal) during 2008-2011. "Don’t Come Home America: The Case Against Retrenchment". International Security, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Winter 2012/13), pp. 7–51) //TruLe 18 +A core premise of deep engagement is that it prevents the emergence of a far more dangerous global security environment. For one thing, as noted above, the United States’ overseas presence gives it the leverage to restrain partners from taking provocative action. Perhaps more important, its core alliance commitments also deter states with aspirations to regional hegemony from contemplating expansion and make its partners more secure, reducing their incentive to adopt solutions to their security problems that threaten others and thus stoke security dilemmas. The contention that engaged U.S. power dampens the baleful effects of anarchy is consistent with influential variants of realist theory. Indeed, arguably the scariest portrayal of the war-prone world that would emerge absent the “American Pacifier” is provided in the works of John Mearsheimer, who forecasts dangerous multipolar regions replete with security competition, arms races, nuclear proliferation and associated preventive war temptations, regional rivalries, and even runs at regional hegemony and full-scale great power war. 72 How do retrenchment advocates, the bulk of whom are realists, discount this benefit? Their arguments are complicated, but two capture most of the variation: (1) U.S. security guarantees are not necessary to prevent dangerous rivalries and conflict in Eurasia; or (2) prevention of rivalry and conflict in Eurasia is not a U.S. interest. Each response is connected to a different theory or set of theories, which makes sense given that the whole debate hinges on a complex future counterfactual (what would happen to Eurasia’s security setting if the United States truly disengaged?). Although a certain answer is impossible, each of these responses is nonetheless a weaker argument for retrenchment than advocates acknowledge. The first response flows from defensive realism as well as other international relations theories that discount the conflict-generating potential of anarchy under contemporary conditions. 73 Defensive realists maintain that the high expected costs of territorial conquest, defense dominance, and an array of policies and practices that can be used credibly to signal benign intent, mean that Eurasia’s major states could manage regional multipolarity peacefully without the American pacifier. Retrenchment would be a bet on this scholarship, particularly in regions where the kinds of stabilizers that nonrealist theories point to—such as democratic governance or dense institutional linkages—are either absent or weakly present. There are three other major bodies of scholarship, however, that might give decisionmakers pause before making this bet. First is regional expertise. Needless to say, there is no consensus on the net security effects of U.S. withdrawal. Regarding each region, there are optimists and pessimists. Few experts expect a return of intense great power competition in a post-American Europe, but many doubt European governments will pay the political costs of increased EU defense cooperation and the budgetary costs of increasing military outlays. 74 The result might be a Europe that is incapable of securing itself from various threats that could be destabilizing within the region and beyond (e.g., a regional conflict akin to the 1990s Balkan wars), lacks capacity for global security missions in which U.S. leaders might want European participation, and is vulnerable to the influence of outside rising powers. What about the other parts of Eurasia where the United States has a substantial military presence? Regarding the Middle East, the balance begins to swing toward pessimists concerned that states currently backed by Washington— notably Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia—might take actions upon U.S. retrenchment that would intensify security dilemmas. And concerning East Asia, pessimism regarding the region’s prospects without the American pacifier is pronounced. Arguably the principal concern expressed by area experts is that Japan and South Korea are likely to obtain a nuclear capacity and increase their military commitments, which could stoke a destabilizing reaction from China. It is notable that during the Cold War, both South Korea and Taiwan moved to obtain a nuclear weapons capacity and were only constrained from doing so by a still-engaged United States. 75 The second body of scholarship casting doubt on the bet on defensive realism’s sanguine portrayal is all of the research that undermines its conception of state preferences. Defensive realism’s optimism about what would happen if the United States retrenched is very much dependent on its particular—and highly restrictive—assumption about state preferences; once we relax this assumption, then much of its basis for optimism vanishes. Specifically, the prediction of post-American tranquility throughout Eurasia rests on the assumption that security is the only relevant state preference, with security defined narrowly in terms of protection from violent external attacks on the homeland. Under that assumption, the security problem is largely solved as soon as offense and defense are clearly distinguishable, and offense is extremely expensive relative to defense. Burgeoning research across the social and other sciences, however, undermines that core assumption: states have preferences not only for security but also for prestige, status, and other aims, and they engage in trade-offs among the various objectives. 76 In addition, they define security not just in terms of territorial protection but in view of many and varied milieu goals. It follows that even states that are relatively secure may nevertheless engage in highly competitive behavior. Empirical studies show that this is indeed sometimes the case. 77 In sum, a bet on a benign postretrenchment Eurasia is a bet that leaders of major countries will never allow these nonsecurity preferences to influence their strategic choices. To the degree that these bodies of scholarly knowledge have predictive leverage, U.S. retrenchment would result in a significant deterioration in the security environment in at least some of the world’s key regions. We have already mentioned the third, even more alarming body of scholarship. Offensive realism predicts that the withdrawal of the American pacifier will yield either a competitive regional multipolarity complete with associated insecurity, arms racing, crisis instability, nuclear proliferation, and the like, or bids for regional hegemony, which may be beyond the capacity of local great powers to contain (and which in any case would generate intensely competitive behavior, possibly including regional great power war). Hence it is unsurprising that retrenchment advocates are prone to focus on the second argument noted above: that avoiding wars and security dilemmas in the world’s core regions is not a U.S. national interest. Few doubt that the United States could survive the return of insecurity and conflict among Eurasian powers, but at what cost? Much of the work in this area has focused on the economic externalities of a renewed threat of insecurity and war, which we discuss below. Focusing on the pure security ramifications, there are two main reasons why decisionmakers may be rationally reluctant to run the retrenchment experiment. First, overall higher levels of conflict make the world a more dangerous place. Were Eurasia to return to higher levels of interstate military competition, one would see overall higher levels of military spending and innovation and a higher likelihood of competitive regional proxy wars and arming of client states—all of which would be concerning, in part because it would promote a faster diffusion of military power away from the United States. Greater regional insecurity could well feed proliferation cascades, as states such as Egypt, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Saudi Arabia all might choose to create nuclear forces. 78 It is unlikely that proliferation decisions by any of these actors would be the end of the game: they would likely generate pressure locally for more proliferation. Following Kenneth Waltz, many retrenchment advocates are proliferation optimists, assuming that nuclear deterrence solves the security problem. 79 Usually carried out in dyadic terms, the debate over the stability of proliferation changes as the numbers go up. Proliferation optimism rests on assumptions of rationality and narrow security preferences. In social science, however, such assumptions are inevitably probabilistic. Optimists assume that most states are led by rational leaders, most will overcome organizational problems and resist the temptation to preempt before feared neighbors nuclearize, and most pursue only security and are risk averse. Confidence in such probabilistic assumptions declines if the world were to move from nine to twenty, thirty, or forty nuclear states. In addition, many of the other dangers noted by analysts who are concerned about the destabilizing effects of nuclear proliferation—including the risk of accidents and the prospects that some new nuclear powers will not have truly survivable forces—seem prone to go up as the number of nuclear powers grows. 80 Moreover, the risk of “unforeseen crisis dynamics” that could spin out of control is also higher as the number of nuclear powers increases. Finally, add to these concerns the enhanced danger of nuclear leakage, and a world with overall higher levels of security competition becomes yet more worrisome. The argument that maintaining Eurasian peace is not a U.S. interest faces a second problem. On widely accepted realist assumptions, acknowledging that U.S. engagement preserves peace dramatically narrows the difference between retrenchment and deep engagement. For many supporters of retrenchment, the optimal strategy for a power such as the United States, which has attained regional hegemony and is separated from other great powers by oceans, is offshore balancing: stay over the horizon and “pass the buck” to local powers to do the dangerous work of counterbalancing any local rising power. The United States should commit to onshore balancing only when local balancing is likely to fail and a great power appears to be a credible contender for regional hegemony, as in the cases of Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union in the midtwentieth century. The problem is that China’s rise puts the possibility of its attaining regional hegemony on the table, at least in the medium to long term. As Mearsheimer notes, “The United States will have to play a key role in countering China, because its Asian neighbors are not strong enough to do it by themselves.” 81 Therefore, unless China’s rise stalls, “the United States is likely to act toward China similar to the way it behaved toward the Soviet Union during the Cold War.” 82 It follows that the United States should take no action that would compromise its capacity to move to onshore balancing in the future. It will need to maintain key alliance relationships in Asia as well as the formidably expensive military capacity to intervene there. The implication is to get out of Iraq and Afghanistan, reduce the presence in Europe, and pivot to Asia— just what the United States is doing. 83 In sum, the argument that U.S. security commitments are unnecessary for peace is countered by a lot of scholarship, including highly influential realist scholarship. In addition, the argument that Eurasian peace is unnecessary for U.S. security is weakened by the potential for a large number of nasty security consequences as well as the need to retain a latent onshore balancing capacity that dramatically reduces the savings retrenchment might bring. Moreover, switching between offshore and onshore balancing could well be difªcult. Bringing together the thrust of many of the arguments discussed so far underlines the degree to which the case for retrenchment misses the underlying logic of the deep engagement strategy. By supplying reassurance, deterrence, and active management, the United States lowers security competition in the world’s key regions, thereby preventing the emergence of a hothouse atmosphere for growing new military capabilities. Alliance ties dissuade partners from ramping up and also provide leverage to prevent military transfers to potential rivals. On top of all this, the United States’ formidable military machine may deter entry by potential rivals. Current great power military expenditures as a percentage of GDP are at historical lows, and thus far other major powers have shied away from seeking to match top-end U.S. military capabilities. In addition, they have so far been careful to avoid attracting the “focused enmity” of the United States. 84 All of the world’s most modern militaries are U.S. allies (America’s alliance system of more than sixty countries now accounts for some 80 percent of global military spending), and the gap between the U.S. military capability and that of potential rivals is by many measures growing rather than shrinking. 85 - EntryDate
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-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +Brenden Dimmig - Opponent
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +Immaculate Heart DD - Round
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +2 - Tournament
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +St Marks
- Caselist.RoundClass[5]
-
- Cites
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +5 - EntryDate
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +2016-12-03 02:02:21.0 - Judge
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +Castillo, Chris - Opponent
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +Athens DR - Round
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +1 - Tournament
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +University of Austin
- Caselist.RoundClass[6]
-
- Cites
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +6 - EntryDate
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +2016-12-16 22:40:39.0 - Judge
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +Sharma, Arun - Opponent
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +Murphy Middle NG - Round
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +2 - Tournament
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +Strake Jesuit
- Caselist.RoundClass[7]
-
- Cites
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +7 - EntryDate
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +2017-01-07 13:47:51.0 - Judge
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +Jalaj Sood - Opponent
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +LCAnd SJ - Round
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +1 - Tournament
-
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@ 1 +Winston Churchill Classic