Summary

• Objects (1 modified, 1 added, 0 removed)
  • Caselist.RoundClass[37]
  • Caselist.CitesClass[7]

Details

Caselist.RoundClass[37]

EntryDate

...	...	@@ -1,1 +1,1 @@
1		-2017-04-12 18:32:55.714
	1	+2017-04-12 18:32:55.0

Caselist.CitesClass[7]

Cites

...	...	@@ -1,0 +1,55 @@
	1	+==Anthro 1AC==
	2	+===Framing:===
	3	+====The role of the ballot is to use the debate site as a space for the operative displacement of anthropocentrism. ====
	4	+**Cheney 05**, ~~Jim Cheney, Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin- Waukesha and inaugural Visiting Scholar of Ecophilosophy and Earth Education at Murdoch University, 2005 (ethics and the environment, 10.2, 101-135, "Truth, Knowledge and the Wild World", accessed online 07-14-08, http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/ethics'and'the'environment/v010/10.2cheney.html)~~ //
	5	+What Shepard adds to Lovibond's argument is the idea that if we test our world-views only against those of other human communities, we are far from emancipating ourselves from "empirical parochialism." Indeed, ~~End Page 110~~ the brunt of his argument is that we, in our very nature as homo sapiens sapiens, are so deeply embedded in the natural world around us that only by renewing sustained communication with the geo- and biological world which made us the beings we are through long stretches of evolutionary time can we escape an ever-increasing descent into what we might call "species autism." Again: What we become in our modern isolation from the world which gave us birth as the species we are, in our insistence that we are the knowers and the nonhuman world is merely the object of our knowing, is an autistic diminishment of what we are when we engage in active and reciprocal communication with the world around us. What the natural world provides (and what we can come to understand and emulate only through sustained communication with that world) is the fullest, most complete model of health and well-being available to us as the ecologically embodied creatures we are. If we draw a circle around our existence as humans and draw our models of health and well-being only from within this human circle, we effectively cut ourselves off from the source of our own species existence, a source that not only brought us into existence, but one that continually nourishes us. The Lovibond-Shepard argument is powerful. As "creatures with a certain physical constitution and a certain ecological location" our knowledge is necessarily parochial (transcendentally parochial), but we need not accept the myriad forms of empirical parochialism in which we are currently mired. Active and reciprocal communication with the source of our species existence alone—the natural world—can enable us to reach the transcendental limits of this parochialism. When we become the creatures we are in this way, we will then once again become what Aldo Leopold hoped for us: plain members and citizens of the land community (Leopold 1970, 240).12 Once we have acknowledged the ethical dimension of the epistemologies we bring to the world, the physically and culturally situated nature of knowledge and the ethical and political responsibility that goes along with this, and nature's participation in the construction of knowledge—as Henry Sharp puts it: "symbols, ideas, and language . . . are not passive ways of perceiving a determined positivist reality but a mode of interaction shared between ~~people~~ and their environment" (Sharp 1988, 144–145)—it is but a short step to Nelson Goodman and Catherine Elgin's conclusion that "defeat and confusion are built into the notions of truth ~~End Page 111~~ and certainty and knowledge." Perhaps we should, as do Goodman and Elgin, relegate these notions to the periphery of philosophical concern and centralize concepts of "rightness," "adoption," and "understanding" instead. One alternative to such a shift in terminology would be to radically rethink our notions of knowledge and truth.
	6	+
	7	+===Harambe:===
	8	+====The Fukishima nuclear meltdown was devastating for primate population. Studies prove radiation led to hematological change in primates. This puts these population at high risk of hematological disease and rapid falling population. But of course we don’t care because these are simply "monkeys." This is the same stunt that was pulled on May 28, 2016 at the Cincinnatti zoo where Innocent Gorilla Harambe was killed because of human foolishness and our unwillingness to regard animal life. RIP Harambe====
	9	+**Ochia et al 14 **~~Kazuhiko Ochiai (Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University Oncology, Molecular biology Cancer Research, Cell Biology, Genetics DVM, PhD), Shin-ichi Hayama, Sachie Nakiri, Setsuko Nakanishi, Naomi Ishii, Taiki Uno, Takuya Kato, Fumiharu Konno, Yoshi Kawamoto, Shuichi Tsuchida and Toshinori Omi, "Low blood cell counts in wild Japanese monkeys after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster" Nature.Com http://www.nature.com/articles/srep05793 24 July 2014
	10	+In April 2012 we carried out a 1-year hematological study on a population of wild Japanese monkeys inhabiting the forest area of Fukushima City. This area is located 70 km from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (NPP), which released a large amount of radioactive material into the environment following the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011. For comparison, we examined monkeys inhabiting the Shimokita Peninsula in Aomori Prefecture, located approximately 400 km from the NPP. Total muscle cesium concentration in Fukushima monkeys was in the range of 78–1778 Bq/kg, whereas the level of cesium was below the detection limit in all Shimokita monkeys. Compared with Shimokita monkeys, Fukushima monkeys had significantly low white and red blood cell counts, hemoglobin, and hematocrit, and the white blood cell count in immature monkeys showed a significant negative correlation with muscle cesium concentration. These results suggest that the exposure to some form of radioactive material contributed to hematological changes in Fukushima monkeys.
	11	+Introduction. Following the massive earthquake that struck eastern Japan on March 11, 2011, a nuclear reactor core meltdown occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (NPP). After the NPP disaster, the range of radiocesium soil concentrations in Fukushima City was 10,000–300,000 Bq/m2 1, and the cumulative radiation dose in the air measured using an integrated dosimeter for the 2-year period after April 2011 was 7.5 mSv2. Despite the occurrence of several NPP disasters, including the Chernobyl accident in 1986, no research on the health effects of radioactive material has been done on wild primates. We therefore examined the relationship between long-term exposure to radioactive material and the health effect on wild Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata) populations inhabiting Fukushima City, the eastern part of Fukushima Prefecture, located 70 km from the NPP (Fig. 1). The Japanese monkey, which is endemic to Japan, has a life span of more than 20 years3. In Japanese monkey populations in Fukushima City, adult females aged 5 years or higher are pregnant in the late fall and give birth in the spring4. Between April 2011 and June 2012, Hayama et al.5 investigated chronological changes in muscle radiocesium concentrations in monkeys inhabiting Fukushima City. The Japanese monkey usually forms a troop of 50–100 individuals of maternal lineage, and each troop has a home range of about 8–31 km2 in snowy areas6. The mean muscle radiocesium concentration in monkeys captured in areas with a soil contamination level of 100,000–300,000 Bq/m2 was significantly higher than that in monkeys captured in areas of 10,000–100,000 Bq/m2 (P 0.001)5. A large number of studies have investigated the health effects of the Chernobyl disaster7,8. In particular, hematological abnormalities such as a decreased blood cell count in people living in contaminated areas have been reported as a long-term effect of low-dose radiation exposure8. In Fukushima, the radiation dose has been reported to be correlated with the occurrence of morphological abnormalities in lycaenid butterflies9 and with decreased abundance of birds, butterflies, and cicadas10,11. In this study, we therefore performed a hematological study of Japanese monkeys inhabiting Fukushima City (hereafter, Fukushima) (Fig. 1), using known chronological records of radiation exposure as described above, to reveal the health effects of radiation exposure. For comparison, we examined Japanese monkeys inhabiting the Shimokita Peninsula in Aomori Prefecture, located approximately 400 km from the NPP (hereafter, Shimokita) (Fig. 1). Data from non-human primates–the closest taxonomic relatives of humans–should make a notable contribution to future research on the health effects of radiation exposure in humans. Results
	12	+Hematological values, muscle radiocesium concentrations, and fat indices are shown in Table 1. Total muscle cesium concentration in Fukushima monkeys was in the range of 78–1778 Bq/kg, whereas the level of cesium was below the detection limit in all Shimokita monkeys. Comparisons of hematological values between areas showed that white blood cell count (WBC), red blood cell count (RBC), hemoglobin (Hb), and hematocrit (Ht) were significantly different (two-way ANOVA with effect of areas, p 0.01, Table 2). However, no significant effects of age or age by areas interaction were observed in those values (Table 2). To further analyze the 4 hematological values that showed a significant difference between Fukushima and Shimokita populations (WBC, RBC, Hb, and Ht), we performed multiple comparisons using the Tukey–Kramer method to compare Shimokita monkeys and the 2 groups of Fukushima monkeys. The results showed that the hematological values were significantly lower in all Fukushima monkeys than in Shimokita monkeys (p 0.001), with no significant difference between the 2 groups of Fukushima monkeys. Platelet counts, WBC differential, and fat index were not observed to be significantly different. When the relationships between 4 hematological values (WBC, RBC, Hb, and Ht) and muscle radiocesium concentration were assessed in individual Fukushima monkeys, WBC was observed to have a significant negative correlation in the immature group (Pearson's correlation coefficient, r = −0.52, p = 0.011, Table 3, Fig. 2), but no correlation was observed in the mature group (r = 0.029, p = 0.887). No other hematological values showed significant correlations with muscle radiocesium concentration. The 4 hematological items were correlated with each other as well. Discussion In the present study, WBC, RBC, Hb, and Ht were significantly lower in Fukushima monkeys than in Shimokita monkeys. Although direct comparison of this study with previous studies may be problematic, since methods and sites for blood sampling reportedly affect blood properties12, the blood cell counts of the present Shimokita monkeys are similar to those reported previously13,14. Nigi et al.14 reported that Japanese monkey populations, except for the Yakushima macaque (Macaca fuscata yakui) subspecies, show large individual variability in blood cell counts, with no difference between the local populations. Although the number is small, previous studies that investigated blood cell counts in wild Japanese monkey populations showed no evidence for different hematological values among the populations. It is possible that the low blood cell counts in Fukushima monkeys were caused by infectious diseases or malnutrition. However, our group has been investigating and has autopsied more than 1000 monkeys captured in Fukushima City since 2008, with no findings of infectious disease specific to the area that may have reduced blood cell counts. Moreover, fat indices did not vary significantly between Fukushima and Shimokita monkeys (Tables 1, 2), indicating that the low blood cell counts was not caused by malnutrition. Because no cesium was detected in the muscle of Shimokita monkeys, the low hematological values in Fukushima monkeys could have therefore been due to the effect of other radioactive materials. Stepanova et al. conducted hematological studies of Ukrainian children between 1993 and 1998 after the Chernobyl disaster of 198615. They observed reduced blood cell counts, Hb, and platelet counts in these children, and found that the extent of the reduction in each child correlated with the level of radiocesium in the soil of the area of residence. This is similar to what we observed in the present study. Although blood cell counts varied significantly between Fukushima and Shimokita populations, no significant difference was observed between the 2 groups of Fukushima monkeys captured in areas with different levels of soil contamination. The study conducted in Ukraine that is described above also showed that WBC did not differ significantly near the border of 2 areas with different levels of soil contamination15. Further studies are needed to investigate monkeys inhabiting an area with a high soil contamination level. In addition, the muscle radiocesium concentrations in Fukushima monkeys are known to show seasonal variation, increasing 2–3-fold in winter5. This suggests that muscle cesium concentrations would vary greatly among monkeys captured in the same area, as in this study (Table 1). The biological half-life of cesium in monkeys is approximately 21 days5. Even if radiation damage is the cause of the low blood cell counts seen here, it is difficult to prove a causal relationship because of the time lag between uptake of the radioactive material and the appearance of radiation damage. The difficulty multiplies when comparing areas with relatively similar radiation exposure. Despite these complex factors, a significant negative correlation was observed between WBC and muscle radiocesium concentrations in immature Fukushima monkeys (Table 3). In addition, WBC, RBC, Hb, and Ht values–which were lower Fukushima monkeys compared with Shimokita monkeys–were significantly correlated with each other, suggesting that with more samples it will be possible to verify the correlation between the 4 hematological values and the muscle radiocesium concentrations. In immature Fukushima monkeys, WBC was significantly negatively correlated with cesium concentration in the muscle, but in mature Fukushima monkeys, no correlation between hematological values and muscle cesium concentration was observed. It is possible that WBC declined because immature monkeys were more vulnerable to radioactive materials. Moysich et al.16 conducted an epidemiological study to investigate the risk of leukemia among Europeans affected by the Chernobyl disaster, and found that the risk was clearly higher among small children than among adults, suggesting that the hematological consequences of radiation exposure vary by age. The hematological changes in the Fukushima monkeys might likely be the result of exposure to some form of radioactive material, but only radiocesium concentration was measured in this study. These hematological changes might have been caused by a decline in hematopoietic function in the bone marrow because the WBC differential did not differ between the Fukushima and Shimokita monkeys. We therefore plan to investigate in a future study the underlying mechanism in detail with the aim of detecting other radioactive materials, such as 90Sr. Presently, it is difficult to investigate Japanese monkeys inhabiting highly contaminated areas where entry is restricted. However, we intend to perform hematological tests and other measurements as soon as the relevant permissions can be obtained. Low blood cell count does not necessarily mean that the health of individual monkeys is at risk. However, it may suggest that the immune system has been compromised to some extent, potentially making individual animals and the entire troop susceptible to, for example, epidemic infectious disease. It is therefore necessary to perform long-term immunological and other health-related studies of Japanese monkey populations in Fukushima.
	13	+
	14	+
	15	+====Meltdowns are inevitable and the chances of meltdown are only increasing. ====
	16	+**Max - Planck- Gesselschaft 12** –The Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science is a formally independent non-governmental and non-profit association of German research institute (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Major Reactor, 5-22-2012, "Severe nuclear reactor accidents likely every 10 to 20 years, European study suggests," ScienceDaily, https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/05/120522134942.htm) LADI
	17	+Fukushima are more likely to happen than previously assumed. Based on the operating hours of all civil nuclear reactors and the number of nuclear meltdowns that have occurred, scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz have calculated that such events may occur once every 10 to 20 years (based on the current number of reactors) — some 200 times more often than estimated in the past. The researchers also determined that, in the event of such a major accident, half of the radioactive caesium-137 would be spread over an area of more than 1,000 kilometres away from the nuclear reactor. Their results show that Western Europe is likely to be contaminated about once in 50 years by more than 40 kilobecquerel of caesium-137 per square meter. According to the International Atomic Energy Agency, an area is defined as being contaminated with radiation from this amount onwards. In view of their findings, the researchers call for an in-depth analysis and reassessment of the risks associated with nuclear power plants. The reactor accident in Fukushima has fuelled the discussion about nuclear energy and triggered Germany's exit from their nuclear power program. It appears that the global risk of such a catastrophe is higher than previously thought, a result of a study carried out by a research team led by Jos Lelieveld, Director of the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz: "After Fukushima, the prospect of such an incident occurring again came into question, and whether we can actually calculate the radioactive fallout using our atmospheric models." According to the results of the study, a nuclear meltdown in one of the reactors in operation worldwide is likely to occur once in 10 to 20 years. Currently, there are 440 nuclear reactors in operation, and 60 more are planned. To determine the likelihood of a nuclear meltdown, the researchers applied a simple calculation. They divided the operating hours of all civilian nuclear reactors in the world, from the commissioning of the first up to the present, by the number of reactor meltdowns that have actually occurred. The total number of operating hours is 14,500 years, the number of reactor meltdowns comes to four — one in Chernobyl and three in Fukushima. This translates into one major accident, being defined according to the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES), every 3,625 years. Even if this result is conservatively rounded to one major accident every 5,000 reactor years, the risk is 200 times higher than the estimate for catastrophic, non-contained core meltdowns made by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission in 1990. The Mainz researchers did not distinguish ages and types of reactors, or whether they are located in regions of enhanced risks, for example by earthquakes. After all, nobody had anticipated the reactor catastrophe in Japan.
	18	+
	19	+
	20	+===Fishes:===
	21	+====Nuclear energy requires more water usage than any other method of energy production. ====
	22	+**UCS 11.** ~~Union of Concerned Scientists. "Nuclear Power and Water." December 2011. http://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/legacy/assets/documents/nuclear'power/fact-sheet-water-use.pdf~~
	23	+The United States produces roughly 4 trillion kilowatt hours of electricity annually, 90 percent of which is generated by thermoelectric power plants.i Plants fueled by coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear fission, and some renewable energy technologies boil water to produce steam, which then turns a turbine to generate electricity. After it passes through the turbine, more water is needed to cool the steam back into water to reuse for generation; this steam-cooling step accounts for virtually all of the water used in most power plants. Nuclear fission is the most water intensive method of the principal thermoelectric generation options in terms of the amount of water withdrawn from sources. In 2008, nuclear power plants withdrew 8 times as much freshwater as natural gas plants per unit of energy produced, and up to 11 percent more than the average coal plant. ii Nuclear power plants are about 33 percent efficient, which means that for every three units of thermal energy generated by the reactor core, one unit of electrical energy goes out to the grid and two units of waste heat go out into the environment through cooling systems. iii Of the 104 nuclear reactors in the United States, 35 are boiling water reactors (BWR) and 69 are pressurized water reactors (PWR). About 60 percent of these nuclear power systems use recirculating cooling; the remainder use once-through cooling.iv
	24	+
	25	+====The millions of gallons are dumped back into their water sources at much higher temperatures which kills fish because of elevated metabolic rate and the system kills the earth’s plankton, eggs, and larvae.====
	26	+**UCS 2 **~~Union of Concerned Scientists. "Nuclear Power and Water." December 2011. http://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/legacy/assets/documents/nuclear'power/fact-sheet-water-use.pdf~~
	27	+Since a large nuclear power plant that utilizes a once through cooling system may withdraw 800 million to 1 billion gallons of water a day, these plants are usually built next to rivers, lakes, or oceans. As the name implies, once-through cooling uses water a single time to cool and condense steam produced for electricity generation. Water produced from the condensed steam is reused in the generation process, but the water used for cooling is discharged back into the lake, river or ocean, with a temperature increase of up to 30 degrees.vi The temperature increase in the bodies of water can have serious adverse effects on aquatic life. Warm water holds less oxygen than cold water, thus discharge from once-through cooling systems can create a "temperature squeeze" that elevates the metabolic rate for fish.vii Additionally, suction pipes that are used to intake water can draw plankton, eggs and larvae into the plant’s machinery, while larger organisms can be trapped against the protective screens of the pipes. Blocked intake screens have led to temporary shut downs and NRC fines at a number of plants.
	28	+
	29	+
	30	+===Advocacy:===
	31	+====The aff prohibits the production of Nuclear power which decreases the death of animals via nuclear contamination. Yes, we’re topical. We affirm the resolution by rejecting the humanist tool for energy and survival and subordination of the nonhuman animal, nuclear energy. The aff rejects survival ethics. This rejection enables an understanding of the species-being. That solves the ethical contradiction of species-level racism. ====
	32	+**HUDSON 2K4** ~~Laura, The Political Animal: Species-Being and Bare Life, mediations journal, http://www.mediationsjournal.org/files/Mediations23'2'04.pdf~~ //
	33	+We are all equally reduced to mere specimens of human biology, mute and uncomprehending of the world in which we are thrown. Species-being, or "humanity as a species," may require this recognition to move beyond the pseudo-essence of the religion of humanism. Recognizing that what we call "the human" is an abstraction that fails to fully describe what we are, we may come to find a new way of understanding humanity that recuperates the natural without domination. The bare life that results from expulsion from the law removes even the illusion of freedom. Regardless of one’s location in production, the threat of losing even the fiction of citizenship and freedom affects everyone. This may create new means of organizing resistance across the particular divisions of society. Furthermore, the concept of bare life allows us to gesture toward a more detailed, concrete idea of what species-being may look like. Agamben hints that in the recognition of this fact, that in our essence we are all animals, that we are all living dead, might reside the possibility of a kind of redemption. Rather than the mystical horizon of a future community, the passage to species-being may be experienced as a deprivation, a loss of identity. Species-being is not merely a positive result of the development of history; it is equally the absence of many of the features of "humanity" through which we have learned to make sense of our world. It is an absence of the kind of individuality and atomism that structure our world under capitalism and underlie liberal democracy, and which continue to inform the tenets of deep ecology. The development of species-being requires the collapse of the distinction between human and animal in order to change the shape of our relationships with the natural world. A true species-being depends on a sort of reconciliation between our "human" and "animal" selves, a breakdown of the distinction between the two both within ourselves and in nature in general. Bare life would then represent not only expulsion from the law but the possibility of its overcoming. Positioned in the zone of indistinction, no longer a subject of the law but still subjected to it through absence, what we equivocally call "the human" in general becomes virtually indistinguishable from the animal or nature. But through this expulsion and absence, we may see not only the law but the system of capitalism that shapes it from a position no longer blinded or captivated by its spell. The structure of the law is revealed as always suspect in the false division between natural and political life, which are never truly separable. Though clearly the situation is not yet as dire as Agamben’s invocation of the Holocaust suggests, we are all, as citizens, under the threat of the state of exception. With the decline of the nation as a form of social organization, the whittling away of civil liberties and, with them, the state’s promise of "the good life" (or "the good death") even in the most developed nations, with the weakening of labor as the bearer of resistance to exploitation, how are we to envision the future of politics and society?
	34	+
	35	+====Abandonment of the humanist paradigm of survival means rejecting efforts towards harm minimization. Complicity with genocidal violence is inevitable in any world of the neg. Only dialectical anti-humanism can solve.====
	36	+**KOCHI and ORDAN 2K8** ~~tarik and noam, queen’s university and bar llan university, "an argument for the global suicide of humanity", vol 7. no. 4., bourderlands e-journal~~ //
	37	+How might such a standpoint of dialectical, utopian anti-humanism reconfigure a notion of action which does not simply repeat in another way the modern humanist infliction of violence, as exemplified by the plan of Hawking, or fall prey to institutional and systemic complicity in speciesist violence? While this question goes beyond what it is possible to outline in this paper, we contend that the thought experiment of global suicide helps to locate this question – the question of modern action itself – as residing at the heart of the modern environmental problem. In a sense perhaps the only way to understand what is at stake in ethical action which responds to the natural environment is to come to terms with the logical consequences of ethical action itself. The point operates then not as the end, but as the starting point of a standpoint which attempts to reconfigure our notions of action, life-value, and harm. For some, guided by the pressure of moral conscience or by a practice of harm minimisation, the appropriate response to historical and contemporary environmental destruction is that of action guided by abstention. For example, one way of reacting to mundane, everyday complicity is the attempt to abstain or opt-out of certain aspects of modern, industrial society: to not eat non-human animals, to invest ethically, to buy organic produce, to not use cars and buses, to live in an environmentally conscious commune. Ranging from small personal decisions to the establishment of parallel economies (think of organic and fair trade products as an attempt to set up a quasi-parallel economy), a typical modern form of action is that of a refusal to be complicit in human practices that are violent and destructive. Again, however, at a practical level, to what extent are such acts of non- participation rendered banal by their complicity in other actions? In a grand register of violence and harm the individual who abstains from eating non-human animals but still uses the bus or an airplane or electricity has only opted out of some harm causing practices and remains fully complicit with others. One response, however, which bypasses the problem of complicity and the banality of action is to take the non-participation solution to its most extreme level. In this instance, the only way to truly be non-complicit in the violence of the human heritage would be to opt-out altogether. Here, then, the modern discourse of reflection, responsibility and action runs to its logical conclusion – the global suicide of humanity – as a free-willed and ‘final solution’.
	38	+
	39	+
	40	+===Offense:===
	41	+====Racism is merely one amongst many tools of axiological anthropocentrism whereby violence can always be justified when applied to racially inferior groups. Only the aff which focuses on rejecting subhuman thinking can contest the myriad forms of racism.====
	42	+**Deckha 2k10** ~~Maneesha, faculty of law, university of Victoria, "it’s time to abandon the idea of human rights", the scavenger, dec. 10~~//
	43	+While the intersection of race and gender is often acknowledged in understanding the etiology of justificatory narratives for war, the presence of species distinctions and the importance of the subhuman are less appreciated. Yet, the race (and gender) thinking that animates Razack’s argument in normalizing violence for detainees (and others) is also centrally sustained by the subhuman figure. As Charles Patterson notes with respect to multiple forms of exploitation: Throughout the history of our ascent to dominance as the master species, our victimization of animals has served as the model and foundation for our victimization of each other. The study of human history reveals the pattern: first, humans exploit and slaughter animals; then, they treat other people like animas and do the same to them. Patterson emphasizes how the human/animal hierarchy and our ideas about animals and animality are foundational for intra-human hierarchies and the violence they promote. The routine violence against beings designated subhuman serves as both a justification and blueprint for violence against humans. For example, in discussing the specific dynamics of the Nazi camps, Patterson further notes how techniques to make the killing of detainees resemble the slaughter of animals were deliberately implemented in order to make the killing seem more palatable and benign. That the detainees were made naked and kept crowded in the gas chambers facilitated their animalization and, in turn, their death at the hands of other humans who were already culturally familiar and comfortable with killing animals in this way. Returning to Razack’s exposition of race thinking in contemporary camps, one can see how subhuman thinking is foundational to race thinking. One of her primary arguments is that race thinking, which she defines as "the denial of a common bond of humanity between people of European descent and those who are not", is "a defining feature of the world order" today as in the past. In other words, it is the "species thinking" that helps to create the racial demarcation. As Razack notes with respect to the specific logic infusing the camps, they "are not simply contemporary excesses born of the west’s current quest for security, but instead represent a more ominous, permanent arrangement of who is and is not a part of the human community". Once placed outside the "human" zone by race thinking, the detainees may be handled lawlessly and thus with violence that is legitimated at all times. Racialization is not enough and does not complete their Othering experience. Rather, they must be dehumanized for the larger public to accept the violence against them and the increasing "culture of exception" which sustains these human bodily exclusions. Although nonhumans are not the focus of Razack’s work, the centrality of the subhuman to the logic of the camps and racial and sexual violence contained therein is also clearly illustrated in her specific examples. In the course of her analysis, to determine the import of race thinking in enabling violence, Razack quotes a newspaper story that describes the background mentality of Private Lynndie England, the white female soldier made notorious by images of her holding onto imprisoned and naked Iraqi men with a leash around their necks. The story itself quotes a resident from England’s hometown who says the following about the sensibilities of individuals from their town: To the country boys here, if you’re a different nationality, a different race, you’re sub-human. That’s the way that girls like Lynndie England are raised. Tormenting Iraqis, in her mind, would be no different from shooting a turkey. Every season here you’re hunting something. Over there they’re hunting Iraqis. Razack extracts this quote to illustrate how "race overdetermined what went on", but it may also be observed that species "overdetermined what went on". Race has a formative function, to be sure, but it works in conjunction with species difference to enable the violence at Abu Ghraib and other camps. Dehumanization promotes racialization, which further entrenches both identities. It is an intertwined logic of race, sex, culture and species that lays the foundation for the violence
	44	+
	45	+====The subordination of animals provides the foundation for the violent institutionalization of sexism====
	46	+**Patterson 02 **Charles Patterson. 2002. Eternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust. P 12- 13//
	47	+Karl Jacoby writes that it seems "more than coincidental that the region that yields the first evidence of agriculture, the Middle East, is the same one that yields the first evidence of slavery." Indeed, in the ancient Near East, he writes, slavery was "little more than the extension of domestication to humans.''" Most studies of human slavery have railed to emphasize how the enslavement of animals served as the model and inspiration for the enslavement of humans, but there have been notable exceptions.40 Elizabeth Fisher believes that the sexual subjugation of women, as practiced in all the known civilizations of the world, was modeled after the domestication of animals. "The domestication of women followed the initiation of animal keeping," she writes, "and it was then that men began to control women's reproductive capacity, enforcing chastity and sexual repression."41 Fisher maintains that it was the vertical, hierarchical positioning of human master over animal slave that intensified human cruelty and laid the foundation for human slavery. The violation of animals expedited the violation of human beings. In taking them in and feeding them, humans first made friends with animals and then killed them. To do so, they had to kill some sensitivity in themselves. When they began manipulating the reproduction of animals, they were even more personally involved in practices which led to cruelty, guilt, and subsequent numbness. The keeping of animals would seem to have set a model for the enslavement of humans, in particular the large-scale exploitation of women captives for breeding and labor. 42
	48	+
	49	+====Anthro is the root cause– the distinction as less than human psychologically structures all oppression and discrimination====
	50	+**Singer 02** (Peter Singer is the author of Writings on an Ethical Life, Practical Ethics; and Rethinking Life arid Death; among many others. Re is currently the Ira W. De Camp Professor of Bio ethics at Princeton University’s Center for Human Values Animal Liberation 2002. Pg. 8-9.)//
	51	+If a being suffers there cart be no moral justification for refusing to take that suffering into consideration. No matter what the nature of the being, the principle of equality requires that its suffering be counted equally with the like suffering—insofar as rough comparisons can he made—of any other being. If a being is not capable of suffering, or of experiencing enjoyment or happiness there is nothing to be taken into account. So the limit of sentience (using the term as a convenient if not strictly accurate shorthand for the capacity to suffer and/or experience) is the only defensible boundary of concern for the interests of others. To mark this boundary by some other character tic like intelligence or rationality Would he to mark it in an arbitrary manner. Why not choose some other characteristic, like skin color? Racist violate the principle of equality by giving greater weight to the interests of members of their own race when there is a clash between their interests and the interests of those of another race. Sexists violate the principle of equality by favoring the interests of their own sex. Similarly, speciesists allow the interests of members of their own species to override the greater interests of members of other species. The pattern is identical in each case.
	52	+
	53	+====Fidelity with the anthropocentric results in objectification of non-humans and entrenches relationships of domination.====
	54	+**Ahkin 10** (Mélanie works at Monash University, "Human Centrism, Animist Materialism, and the Critique of Rationalism in Val. Plumwood’s Critical Ecological Feminism," Emergent Australasian Philosophers, 2010, Issue 3, http://www.eap.philosophy australia.com/issue'3/EAP3'AHKIN'Human'Centrism.pdf) //
	55	+Richard Sylvan and Val Plumwood's pioneering 1979 critique of human chauvinism within dominant western ethics defines the concept in relation to class chauvinism, as the "substantially differential, discriminatory and inferior treatment" of the class of non-human entities by members of the class of humans, where this treatment lacks sufficient justification.2 They contend that insofar as dominant western ethical systems unjustifiably treat humans as uniquely morally significant; fail to provide an account of humans' direct, non-instrumental moral obligations to non-humans; and promote varying degrees of human dominion over non-human nature, these frameworks sanction differential, discriminatory and inferior treatment of non-humans and are by consequence human chauvinist.3 Plumwood's development of this collaborative critique of human chauvinism in her early 1990's work, and beyond, draws on feminist analyses of oppression and rationalism as well as insights from liberation theory in order to enrich and expand the analysis of the human mastery of nature.4 Her critique of the dominant western framework of rationalist reason allows her to draw out the structural features and logical patterns common to various instantiations of oppression, namely the logic of centrism and its foundational value dualisms, and also the role of related instrumental egoist models of selfhood. Thus she is able to provide a more global critique of oppression than that offered by the earlier analysis of human chauvinism, involving not just the problems inherent in the human chauvinist framework's foundational instrumentalist value theory, but also highlighting the broader conceptual and perceptual distortions involved in centric structures and dualist logic, and the injustices and prudential dilemmas they cause in both social and environmental realms. On Plumwood's analysis, the rationalist conception of the human self is defined in polarised opposition to concepts such as materiality, nature, and necessity, and in accordance with those of reason, consciousness, culture, freedom and transcendence of nature. Together with an emphasis on instrumental and colonising forms of reason, this exclusionary conception provides an important conceptual foundation for the human mastery of nature. § Marked 15:24 § Indeed, the logic of the foundational human/nature and reason/nature dualisms which underlie this conception of the human self provide much of the justification and naturalisation for the instrumentalisation of nature, fostering the assignment of exclusive moral significance to humans based largely on their allegedly unique possession of the capacity for reason.5 This further emphasises their conceptual hyperseparation from non-human nature and permits the instrumental valuation and treatment of the sphere of nature. The rationalist tradition also holds feminine attributes to be similarly radically separate from human virtue (likewise defined principally in terms of reason), thus creating a "master perspective" which subordinates and is alienated from both the feminine and nature, marrying the concept of reason with power and domination.6 Given this connection between the subordination of women and that of nature, Plumwood appeals to androcentrism as a more fully theorised parallel model for the human mastery of nature and accordingly reconceptualises human chauvinism in terms of the logic of hegemonic centrism. Plumwood defines hegemonic centrism as "a primary-secondary pattern of attribution that sets up one term (the One) as primary or as centre and defines marginal Others as secondary or derivative in relation to it".7 This logical structure is founded on that of a value dualism, defined as an exaggerated dichotomy involving the extreme polarisation of contrasting conceptual pairs and their formation in terms of a value hierarchy. Dualised concepts are formed by a relation of power, promoting the treatment of inferiorised concepts as mere means to the ends of the superior relata, which seek to differentiate, dominate and control the inferior relata.8 In Plumwood's terms, "~~d~~ualisms are not universal features of human thought, but conceptual responses to and foundations for social domination".9 The five key features of dualism's "logic of domination" are as follows: Radical exclusion or hyperseparation involves the denial of continuity between dominant and marginalised groups, instead stressing extreme difference and creating a polarised relation which denies any possibility of overlap. Combined with backgrounding- the dominant group's denial of its dependency on the marginalised group and rendering of the latter as inessential background- this works to justify and naturalise the superior relata's claim to unique importance and dominance over the radically discontinuous and seemingly inessential inferior relata. Incorporation or relational definition involves the definition and recognition of the inferior relata solely in relation to (as excluded from) the superior group; this assimilation to the superior relata's identity, needs and ends negates the needs and ends of the inferior relata and results in the latter's inability to impose moral constraints or limitations on the dominant group. Thus, it is subject to instrumentalisation and objectification: it is further stripped of intrinsic value, ends, and needs by means of the denial of its subjectivity and intentionality, facilitating its treatment as mere means to the ends of the dominant group. The formation of the dualised relata in terms of a moral hierarchy naturalises this instrumentalisation, making it seem a normal consequence of their differing degrees of moral significance. The final feature of homogenisation or stereotyping occurs when differences within the subordinated group are denied, allowing it to be attributed a reductive and stable identity, thus also promoting the treatment of its constituents as interchangeable and replaceable resources for the dominant group.

EntryDate

...	...	@@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
	1	+2017-04-12 18:32:57.644

Judge

...	...	@@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
	1	+Jackson Hawkins

Opponent

...	...	@@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
	1	+Reagan RV

ParentRound

...	...	@@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
	1	+37

Round

...	...	@@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
	1	+3

Team

...	...	@@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
	1	+Warren Okunlola Aff

Title

...	...	@@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
	1	+2 - Anthropocentrism Affirmative - 1AC - Brandeis Round 3

Tournament

...	...	@@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
	1	+Brandeis