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1 -====First, the purpose of debate education should be to train youth to challenge oppressive structures, not perpetuate them,====
2 -**Bohmer 91** "Teaching Privileged Students about Gender, Race, and Class Oppression." Teaching Sociology, Vol. 19, No. 2 (April, 1991) pp. 154-163.
3 -Our strong emphasis on institutional oppression is not only due to our
4 -AND
5 -ways of introducing race, gender, and class into the sociology curriculum.
6 -
7 -====Second, structural violence excludes certain individuals from the moral sphere, meaning it’s impossible to create a coherent moral code without resolving issues of structural violence ====
8 -
9 -====Third, Ideal theory ignores histories of injustice in its attempt to generalize a perfect society. Non Ideal theory is the only option to recognize and resist recreating injustice====
10 -**Mills 2** "Ideal Theory" as Ideology CHARLES W. MILLS
11 -The crucial common claim—whether couched in terms of ideology and fetishism, or
12 -AND
13 -the more local level, the descriptive concepts arrived at may be misleading.
14 -
15 -
16 -====Fourth, discussions cannot be based on ideal theory- we must engage in real world discussions but those discussions mean nothing unless they change the values to the people they affect,====
17 -**Curry 14** Dr. Tommy J. Curry 1 The Cost of a Thing: A Kingian Reformulation of a Living Wage Argument in the 21st Century. 2014
18 -Despite the pronouncement of debate as an activity and intellectual exercise pointing to
19 -AND
20 -used to currently justify the living wages in under our contemporary moral parameters.
21 -
22 -====Therefore, the role of the ballot is to vote for the debater who takes the best action to improve conditions for marginalized groups. This requires state action, not just critical reflection- moving away from the state dooms the lefts’ critique to failure—we must work within the state without being statist, meaning if the neg alt isn’t a state policy I’m the only one with a risk of offense====
23 -**Connally 2k8 **~~William, Professor of Political Science at John Hopkins, Capitalism and Christianity, American Style, page numbers are at the bottom of the card.~~
24 -Before turning to possible strategies to promote these objectives, we need to face an
25 -AND
26 -were it to occur, would undermine rather than vitalize democratic culture.
27 -
28 -
29 -====Implications:====
30 -
31 -
32 -====A) Ceding the political leaves politics to the right; we probably don’t want Trump as president so we cant avoid politics entirely. B) Even if the state is implicitly bad, winning aff solvency shows a shift from its representations. C), State is necessary to affect material oppression in the AC.====
33 -
34 -
35 -====Thus I advocate that countries ought to prohibit the production of nuclear power ====
36 -
37 -
38 -==Contention 1: Indigenous sovereignty ==
39 -
40 -
41 -====Colonialism has been a implicit part of American patriotism – first they took away the land and forced indigenous peoples onto reservations and now they are taking away the remaining red sovereignty by bribing and abusing the indigenous land and reservations by placing dangerous nuclear power plants ====
42 -**Angel 91** Bradley (an international leader in the environmental health and justice movement, working with communities to stop pollution threats and to promote pollution prevention) "The Toxic Threat to Indian Lands" Greenpeace 1991 http://www.ejnet.org/ej/toxicthreattoindianlands.pdf DOA: 8.11.16//KAE
43 -Five hundred years ago explorer Christopher Columbus sailed from Europe, setting in motion a
44 -AND
45 -traditions and sovereignty becomes known, resistance by Indian people has spread rapidly.
46 -
47 -
48 -====Aboriginals and indigenous peoples face similar discrimination ====
49 -**Green 16 **Radioactive waste and the nuclear war on Australia's Aboriginal people Jim Green 1st July 2016 http://www.theecologist.org/News/news'analysis/2987853/radioactive'waste'and'the'nuclear'war'on'australias'aboriginal'people.html Dr James "Jim" Green is the national anti-nuclear campaigner with Friends of the Earth Australia and Australian coordinator of the Beyond Nuclear Initiative.~~1~~ Green is a regular media commentator on nuclear waste issues.~~2~~ He has an honours degree in public health from the University of Wollongong and was awarded a PhD in science and technology studies for his analysis of the Lucas Heights research reactor debates.~~3~~
50 -This isn't the first time that Aboriginal people in South Australia have faced the imposition
51 -AND
52 -This took place with no forewarning and no consultation with Aboriginal people.
53 -
54 -
55 -==== Prohibiting productin of nuclear power solves; eliminates the need for waste disposal and ====
56 -**Rozman 14** Izzati (Scholar and Author) "ARGUMENTATIVE REPORT SHOULD OR SHOULD NOT NUCLEAR POWER ENERGY BE BANNED GLOBALLY?" University Sultan Zainal Abidin, 2014 https://www.academia.edu/10107346/ARGUMENTATIVE'REPORT'SHOULD'OR'SHOULD'NOT'NUCLEAR'POWER'ENERGY'BE'BANNED'GLOBALLY DOA: 8.11.16//KAE
57 -Nuclear power should be banned globally not because of the availability of extensive reasons that
58 -AND
59 -depleting precious potable water resources and bring hazardous effect towards human and environment.
60 -
61 -
62 -==Contention 2: Japan ==
63 -
64 -
65 -====Nuclear power production entered Japan into an age of racial violence ====
66 -**Shrader-Frechette 1 **ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Volume 5, Number 3, 2012 a Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. DOI: 10.1089/env.2011.0045 Nuclear Catastrophe, Disaster-Related Environmental Injustice, and Fukushima, Japan: Prima-Facie Evidence for a Japanese ‘‘Katrina’’ Kristin Shrader-Frechette http://www3.nd.edu/~~kshrader/pubs/ksf-ej-2012-fukushima.pdf // KAE
67 -Besides poor people, prima-facie, pre-FD-accident evidence also
68 -AND
69 -DREI victims? To answer these questions, consider first the FD accident.
70 -
71 -
72 -====Environmental injustice threats following nuclear power disasters promote racist and classist culture divides====
73 -**Shrader-Frechette 2** ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Volume 5, Number 3, 2012 a Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. DOI: 10.1089/env.2011.0045 Nuclear Catastrophe, Disaster-Related Environmental Injustice, and Fukushima, Japan: Prima-Facie Evidence for a Japanese ‘‘Katrina’’ Kristin Shrader-Frechette http://www3.nd.edu/~~kshrader/pubs/ksf-ej-2012-fukushima.pdf // KAE
74 -Because Japan has few minorities, one might expect that its environmental-injustice
75 -AND
76 -that is able to assess the ultima-facie case for FD EI.
77 -
78 -
79 -==Contention 3: Masculinity ==
80 -
81 -
82 -====Nuclear power personifies a male structure perpetuating forms of masculine domination ====
83 -**Caputi 04**, Jane Goddesses and Monsters: Women, Myth, Power, and Popular Culture https://books.google.com/books/about/Goddesses'and'Monsters.html?id=C'r6meksRjUCandprintsec=frontcoverandsource=kp'read'button~~#v=onepageandq=nuclearandf=false 2004// KAE
84 -Feminist criticism has focused on exposing what Diana Russell (1989) calls "nuclear
85 -AND
86 -place, the mother’s body (Porter, 1991, 104-5).
87 -
88 -
89 -====Nuclear power is the symbol of masculinity – a political artifact that rapes the earth and creates a monopolization of control over the notion of femininity. Maintaining production of the atom bomb replicates the hierarchal chain of command and oppressive power structures that follow from nuclear power ====
90 -**Grint and Gill 95** The Gender-technology Relation: Contemporary Theory and Research By Keith Grint, Rosalind Gill//KAE
91 -nuclear technology is a useful example to illustrate some fundamental differences in approach to technology
92 -AND
93 -that it be controlled by a centralized, rigidly hierarchical chain of command.
94 -
95 -
96 -====Nuclear weapons support the Patriarchy and male dominations====
97 -**Canberra 84 **Published by Friends of the Earth (Canberra) in January 1984, ISBN 0 909313 27 X (pdf of original). A condensed version was published in Social Alternatives, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1986, pp. 9-16.//KAE
98 -Patriarchy - the collective domination of men over women - and other major social structures
99 -AND
100 -imagine the development of nuclear weapons in a society where feminine values predominated.
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1 -====Violence against womyn in systems of white supremacy become internalized – marked identities begin to desire the purity of unmarked whiteness, and thus normalize their world view. Oppression thus becomes a condition of happiness – women are happy in the kitchen, they don’t want to go out to work. The ultimate form of white patriarchy is the oppressed desiring their own oppression, and we need to disrupt this naïve happiness.====
2 -**Ahmed 10** Sara, 1/1/2010. Professor of Race and Cultural Studies, Goldsmiths College, University of London. The Promise of Happiness. Duke University Press.
3 -It is Sophy’s imagination… right way, to be assembled.
4 -
5 -====People do not take women seriously when they speak – now you have to. Rearticulation serves as a method to sever the ties of the power within language and speech acts from its historically gendered and racialized history. Nagging and disrupting the white-male hegemonic institutions in the academy creates a disruption of the language game that exists in the academy. Only by antagonizing the principles of exclusion can we disorient the habitual spaces of whiteness which is a prerequisite to combatting other forms of oppression ====
6 -**Patton 04** (Dr. Tracey Owens Patton is the director of African American and Diaspora Studies and a professor in the Department of Communication and Journalism at the University of Wyoming. Dr. Patton's area of expertise is critical cultural communication and rhetorical studies.2004 Reflections of a Black Woman Professor: Racism and Sexism in Academia, Howard Journal of Communications, 15:3, 197-198, Accessed 6/27/16, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10646170490483629)
7 -Through my personal…common set of struggles.
8 -
9 -====Thus I affirm the entirety of the resolution. We affirm to open up a space to endorse the feminist kill joy and creates sites of discourse that disorients and reconfigures the social order. ====
10 -**Ahmed 10** Sara Ahmed "Feminist Killjoys (And Other Willful Subjects)" The Scholar and Feminist Online The Barnard Center for Research on Women Summer 2010
11 -To be unseated… We must learn.
12 -
13 -====Our affirmative approach as a foundational criticism is necessary to resolve the structural antagonisms that formulate law – even the most progressive left legal reforms recreate those problems and attempt to disentangle the complexities of gender issues - Our aff is a prerequisite ====
14 -**Brown and Halley 02 **Wendy Brown and Janet Halley, 2002 (Left Legalism/Left Critique, Wendy Brown is First Professor of Political Science at the University of California, Berkeley, where she is also affiliated with the Department of Rhetoric, and where she is a core faculty member in the Designated Emphasis in Critical Theory. Janet Halley is the Royall Professor of Law at Harvard Law School. p. 18-25)
15 -Left legalistic projects… that bred them.
16 -
17 -====The notion of free speech assumes that all voices are equally treated, when in reality power inequities shape who can speak what====
18 -**Boler 2k** Megan Boler (Professor in the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto and editor of Digital Media and Democracy), "All Speech is Not Free: The Ethics of "Affirmative Action Pedagogy," Philosophy of Education, 2000
19 -All speech is not … limiting dominant voices.
20 -
21 -====Oppression in debate is perpetuated by the decisions community members make on a weekly basis. We look to real world implications in order to access debate’s liberatory potential. Thus, the role of the ballot is to vote for the best resistance strategy for the oppressed. ====
22 -Smith 13, Elijah. A Conversation in Ruins: Race and Black Participation in Lincoln Douglas Debate
23 -It will be … students cannot escape.
24 -
25 -====Freedom of speech requires emancipation from social oppression – The aff challenge traditional notions of free speech from a negative individual right to an opportunity to subvert disempowerment. Instead of viewing freedom of speech as a negative individual right, we should understand it as the right to speak up.  ====
26 -**Hornsby 95** Jennifer Hornsby "Disempowered Speech" University of Arkansas Press Philosophical Topics, Vol. 23, No. 2, Feminist Perspectives on Language, Knowledge, and Reality (FALL 1995),
27 -Free speech, or …. will be indispensable.
28 -
29 -====If that speech was too shrill for you then that’s part of the problem. Feminine participation and speech inside of the debate space is constantly suppressed to a relegated status of happiness and conformity. ====
30 -**Feinzig and Atyeo 11 **An Analysis of Gender Disparities in Lincoln-Douglas Debate Joshua Feinzig
31 -Natalie Atyeo
32 -Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School October 2, 2011 http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract'id=1957437
33 -Though the cited … lower vocal pitches.
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1 -====Recognition necessitates an understanding of social standpoints of the oppressed and fluidity of identity ====
2 -**Butler 09 **Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? JUDITH BUTLER 2009 Pg. 8
3 -How then is … radically democratic results?
4 -
5 -====Language facilitates recognition as an instrument for compelling agency by allowing us to address one another and recognize existence. This allows for language to socially determine our existence and submits us to linguistic ontology.====
6 -**Butler 97** "Excitable Speech: A Politics of Performativity" by Judith Butler 1997 p. 5
7 -Language sustains the … of survivable subjects.
8 -
9 -====Ontology comes first because underpins all other impacts and is the basis for all politics====
10 -**Dillon 99 **(Michael, Professor of Politics at the University of Lancaster, Moral Spaces, p. 97-98)
11 -As Heidegger – himself… decision and judgment.
12 -analytics
13 -
14 -====And, our heuristic means we learn about the State without being it. Our framework teaches contingent, but engaged, middle grounds. No State pessimism or optimism bias for extreme Alts.====
15 -**Zanotti ’14** Dr. Laura Zanotti is an Associate Professor of Political Science at Virginia Tech.  Her research and teaching include critical political theory as well as international organizations, UN peacekeeping, democratization and the role of NGOs in post-conflict governance." Governmentality, Ontology, Methodology: Re-thinking Political Agency in the Global World" – Alternatives: Global, Local, Political – vol 38(4):p. 288-304,. A little unclear if this is late 2013 or early 2014 – The Stated "Version of Record" is Feb 20, 2014, but was originally published online on December 30th, 2013. Obtained via Sage Database.  KAE bracketed for grammar
16 -By questioning substantialist … and pessimistic activism.
17 -
18 -====Thus the standard is promoting critical social engagement. ====
19 -====I defend the resolution; Resolved: Public colleges and Universities in the United States ought not restrict any constitutionally protected speech. I defend the resolution as a general principle, so I don’t defend implementation.====
20 -====The squo presents an inherent problem; colleges restrict students ability to exercise their free speech. ====
21 -**Wheeler 16** , Lydia. "Colleges Are Restricting Free Speech on Campus, Lawmakers Say." TheHill. N.p., 02 Feb. 2016. Web. 06 Dec. 2016.
22 -In protecting students… use," he said.
23 -
24 -===Adv. 1 Activism===
25 -
26 -====The thesis of the affirmative is to open up free speech on campus to endorse methods like counter speech, which is a method of literal interrogation against harmful speech. Counter-speech works to combat hate speech—empirically verified. ====
27 -**Davidson ’16** The Freedom of Speech in Public Forums on College Campuses: A Single-Site Case Study on Pushing the Boundaries of the Freedom of Speech A Senior Project presented to The Faculty of the Journalism Department California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Bachelor of Science in Journalism By Alexander Davidson June 2016 
28 -All experts agreed… combat the issue.
29 -
30 -====The aff creates a culture of counterspeech. Censorship is the only alternative and it undermines empowerment and makes offensive speakers into martyrs, increasing the effectiveness of their arguments—my evidence is directly comparative.====
31 -**Strossen 95 **1995 Hate Speech and Pornography: Do We Have to Choose between Freedom of Speech and Equality Nadine Strossen New York Law School *** multiple examples come from public colleges at ASU and more. Examples cited in card ununderlined bc I wanted to be efficient sorry. Can point to it if you’d like
32 -The viewpoint-neutrality… it enfeebles them.4 P
33 -
34 -====Public colleges restricting free speech creates administrative intervention which destroys grassroot activism ====
35 -**Brown 95 **~~Brown (Wendy L. Brown (born November 28, 1955) is an American professor of Political Science at the University of California, Berkeley~~1~~ where she is also affiliated with the Department of Rhetoric, and where she is a core faculty member in the Designated Emphasis in Critical Theory.~~2~~), Wendy. "States of injury: Power and freedom in late modernity." (1995). //~~
36 -It is important … essays arc written.
37 -
38 -====Censorship hurts the students’ ability to protest offensive speech in the future – granting college admin the authority to police speech creates a precident of rights infringement ====
39 -**Milligan 15 **From Megaphones to Muzzles Free speech is under fire on college campuses – and the attacks are coming from students. By Susan Milligan ~| Staff Writer Nov. 25, 2015, http://www.usnews.com/news/the-report/articles/2015/11/25/from-megaphones-to-muzzles-free-speech-safe-spaces-and-college-campuses
40 -To me, an institution… free speech rages on.
41 -
42 -====When colleges determine that certain words or concepts shouldn’t be said, it locks the trauma of oppression in the words themselves. By freeing up speech, the Aff takes away the oppressor’s ability to use those words as a weapon.====
43 -**Butler 97**, Judith (Professor of Rhetoric and Comparative Literature, University of California-Berkeley), Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative, Routledge, 1997.
44 -Keeping such terms … is partially open.
45 -
46 -=== adv. 2 Education ===
47 -====Free speech restrictions prevent colleges from doing what they were made to do: namely, to educate tomorrow’s innovators, leaders, and activists. ====
48 -**Snyder 16** , Jeffrey Aaron, "Free Speech? Now That’s Offensive!" Inside Higher Ed, September 1, 2016.
49 -The Gallup survey… by its critics?
50 -analytics
51 -====Empirics prove that banning bigoted speech or acts doesn’t work. ====
52 -**Malik 12** , Kenan, "Why hate speech should not be banned," April 12, 2012.
53 -And in practice, … hate speech is involved.
54 -
55 -====The University is no longer open- it controls what knowledge can be disseminated- this is a new form of intolerance that has replaced previous intolerances- this prevents creating the best knowledge possible by limiting discussion and preventing idea exchange- this leads to extremity, polarization, and hinders politics, decision-making, and societal progress====
56 -**Nelson 15 **Nelson, Libby. Education Reporter Reporting on and explaining education. Previously: POLITICO Pro, Inside Higher Ed. Originally: Northwestern and Kansas City. "Obama on Liberal College Students Who Want to Be "coddled": "That's Not the Way We Learn"" Vox. Vox Media, Inc, 14 Sept. 2015. Web. 23 June 2016. http://www.vox.com/2015/9/14/9326965/obama-political-correctness.
57 -DES MOINES, Iowa —… , is all about."
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1 -====Look at how brave these universities are! They’re promising increased diversity and making a quota system for disadvantaged groups—well I mean, sorta. They don’t actually ever do anything and usually sweep problematic issues under the rug, but it’s the thought that counts right? ====
2 -
3 -====The effect of university policies aimed at helping oppressed bodies vanishes in thin air, but the legal walls created stay in place. On-campus activists are put into a situation where they constantly make futile policies, while the university ignores its commitments====
4 -**Ahmed 1** (Sara Ahmed is formerly the director of a new Centre for Feminist Research (CFR) at Goldsmiths, Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths, and a scholar that writes on the intersection of queer theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and post-colonialism/ Ahmed, Sara. Article from her independent research blog: Evidence Posted on July 12, 2016 – no pg. numbers, DOA 1/28/17 KE)
5 -To have evidence ... to silence the oppressed
6 -
7 -**Ahmed 2** (Sara Ahmed is formerly the director of a new Centre for Feminist Research (CFR) at Goldsmiths, Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths, and a scholar that writes on the intersection of queer theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and post-colonialism, "How Not to Do Things with Words" Wagadu: A Journal of Transnational Women’s and Gender Studies, 2016, vol. 16, pp 2-6.//Accessed 9/15/16 KE)
8 -How can not doing ...under the appearance of "having brought."
9 -
10 -====White patriarchy relies on this institutionalized promise of happiness, wherein oppression becomes happiness as it circulates the image of the happy woman in the kitchen, the thankful woman with lower pay and the happy slave. The contours of these restrictions relegate the Other to death through a denunciation of desire and will. ====
11 -**Ahmed 2** (Sara Ahmed is formerly the director of a new Centre for Feminist Research (CFR) at Goldsmiths, Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths, and a scholar that writes on the intersection of queer theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and post-colonialism. Ahmed, Sara. The Promise of Happiness. Durham: Duke U Press, 2010. Pg. 63-64 //DOA 1/29/17 KE)
12 -It is Sophy’s imagination ... as the general or social will.*
13 -
14 -====Speech is an expression of will, but the voice of the oppressed is lost as it becomes docile. Violence becomes the corrective tool to reorient non-conforming bodies into obedience with oppressive rule systems "for their own good"====
15 -**Ahmed 3** (Sara Ahmed is formerly the director of a new Centre for Feminist Research (CFR) at Goldsmiths, Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths, and a scholar that writes on the intersection of queer theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and post-colonialism, Willful Subjects, Duke University Press, pp 63-67.//Accessed 2/2/17 KE)
16 -The story gives us a ...are kept alive by forgetting
17 -
18 -====~~advo text~~ Thus I affirm the resolution. The 1AC is a standing resistance against institutionalized happiness in university settings through the figure of the killjoy. ====
19 -
20 -====The 1AC is a personal killjoy manifesto against the oppressive structures of happiness in academic spaces. Our genealogy repeats the unhappy history of students and debaters alike, where every round forces the academic institution to continually take on the weight of its past. A manifesto allows us to use our personal experiences against the institution to reassert our wills and to collapse systems of violence. To be a killjoy is to be a political activist, a nonconforming queer, or the angry black woman. There can be joy in the killing of joy – our manifesto just determines a purpose of feminist flight. ====
21 -**Ahmed 4** (Sara Ahmed is formerly the director of a new Centre for Feminist Research (CFR) at Goldsmiths, Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths, and a scholar that writes on the intersection of queer theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and post-colonialism, Living a Feminist Life, "Conclusion II", 2017, Duke University Press, pp 254-257 //Accessed 2/9/2017 GKKE)
22 -We must stay unhappy ...them if you can bear them. 
23 -
24 -====The killjoy is the praxis point to resolve other violent power structures – our project of phenomenology expose the origin of violence and present a unified call to rage against points of oppression within politics. ====
25 -**Ahmed 5** Sara Ahmed "Feminist Killjoys (And Other Willful Subjects)" The Scholar and Feminist Online The Barnard Center for Research on Women Summer 2010
26 -Phenomenology helps us ...with which they get associated.
27 -
28 -==== ~~rotb text?~~ The role of the ballot is vote for the debater that best mobilizes unhappiness as a way to fight oppression. Our manifesto is an archive of happiness that extends beyond the resolution; the ballot becomes a form of affect – every reading of the 1AC elicits an rfd, decision, and refutation which create new impressions to shape identity to reclaim the liberatory potential of academic settings. ====
29 -**Ahmed 6 **(Sara Ahmed is formerly the director of a new Centre for Feminist Research (CFR) at Goldsmiths, Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths, and a scholar that writes on the intersection of queer theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and post-colonialism. Ahmed, Sara. The Promise of Happiness. Durham: Duke U Press, 2010. Pg. 19-20//DOA 1/29/17 KE)
30 -Every writer is first ... book is to make room.
31 -
32 -====This means that only the aff is effective to create a survival mechanism for the Other in the institution; silence creates complacency under the guise of "safety" which become less safe for the marginalized bodies in the institutions====
33 -**Rodruiguez 11** (Dalia Rodriguez,2011, Qualitative Inquiry, "Silent rage and the politics of resitstance: countering seductions of whiteness and the road of politization and empowerment" https://mail.google.com/mail/u/0/~~#inbox/155f2644f681f418?projector=1 ) pg. 594
34 -However, in addition to ...in the White academy.
35 -
36 -====Our manifesto points out the structures of complacency inside of institutions but critiques the normalcy of what it means to protest inside of it. Our refusal to be complacent with happiness in university settings redefines protest. Reshaping protest is crucial because institutions, like debate, discourage protest to maintain oppression and happiness. Speech is reregulated as the right to speak up. ====
37 -**Nguyen 14** Nicole Nguyen and R. Tina Catania The Feminist Wire August 5 2014 "On Feeling Depleted: Naming, Confronting, and Surviving Oppression in the Academy" thefeministwire.com/2014/08/feeling-depleted-naming-confronting-surviving-oppression-academy/
38 -We write because we ...strategize, to survive, to heal.
39 -
40 -====Our manifesto is a rupturing of happiness inside of debate's academic setting. Oppression in debate is perpetuated by the decisions community members make on a weekly basis. We look to real world implications in order to access debate’s liberatory potential. Thus, the role of the judge is to vote for the best resistance strategy for the oppressed. ====
41 -**Smith 13, Elijah. A Conversation in Ruins: Race and Black Participation in Lincoln Douglas Debate **
42 -It will be uncomfortable,...black students cannot escape.
43 -
44 -====Scenarios of nuclear war or extinction are deemed as the ‘good form of debate’ and help construct a space where violence against womxn is especially hidden and force female debaters to be complacent reading those positions. We are supposed to be nice debaters, more compelling, appropriate and sweet. Failure to do so creates more affect against the marginalized female body. Thus, the figure of the killjoy is uniquely good in debate. ====
45 -Bjork 92 (Rebecca, debater and university coach, "Symposium: Women in Debate: Reflections on the Ongoing Struggle", Effluents and affluence: The Global Pollution Debate, 1992")
46 -While reflecting on my ... real power that we have.
47 -
48 -====/slow down/ if that speech was too shrill for you then you’re part of the problem. The status of comfort in the activity deems feminine speech as shrill and disfavored. Women in debate become The Other in a new setting of the institution. Feminine participation and speech inside of debate is constantly suppressed to a relegated status of happiness and conformity. ====
49 -**Feinzig and Atyeo 11 **An Analysis of Gender Disparities in Lincoln-Douglas Debate Joshua Feinzig
50 -Natalie Atyeo
51 -Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School October 2, 2011 http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract'id=1957437
52 -Though the cited studies... in the debate community.
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1 -2017-02-20 12:30:04.0
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1 -2016-09-11 23:01:24.0
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1 -only broken 1AC Round reports 1NC r2 - anthro k 1NC r3 - rotb spec coal DA 1NC r5 - espec consult natives PIC
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1 -2017-01-17 00:25:54.0
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1 -Nik Patel, Lu Barazza, Zachary Zertuche
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1 -1NC - revenge porn PIC endowments DA chilling effect DA mills fw
2 -1NR - PIC Fw
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1 -2017-01-19 05:23:56.0
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1 -This was for lay rounds oops
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1 -R2 1NC intersectionality k academic freedom NC case turns - 1nr collapse to k turns
2 -R4 1NC Asexuality K 1NR collapse to floating word pik
3 -R6 1NC Wynter k white speech PIC case turns - 1NR collapse to PIC
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1 +====First, the purpose of debate education should be to train youth to challenge oppressive structures, not perpetuate them,====
2 +**Bohmer 91** "Teaching Privileged Students about Gender, Race, and Class Oppression." Teaching Sociology, Vol. 19, No. 2 (April, 1991) pp. 154-163.
3 +Our strong emphasis on institutional oppression is not only due to our
4 +AND
5 +ways of introducing race, gender, and class into the sociology curriculum.
6 +
7 +====Second, structural violence excludes certain individuals from the moral sphere, meaning it’s impossible to create a coherent moral code without resolving issues of structural violence ====
8 +
9 +====Third, Ideal theory ignores histories of injustice in its attempt to generalize a perfect society. Non Ideal theory is the only option to recognize and resist recreating injustice====
10 +**Mills 2** "Ideal Theory" as Ideology CHARLES W. MILLS
11 +The crucial common claim—whether couched in terms of ideology and fetishism, or
12 +AND
13 +the more local level, the descriptive concepts arrived at may be misleading.
14 +
15 +
16 +====Fourth, discussions cannot be based on ideal theory- we must engage in real world discussions but those discussions mean nothing unless they change the values to the people they affect,====
17 +**Curry 14** Dr. Tommy J. Curry 1 The Cost of a Thing: A Kingian Reformulation of a Living Wage Argument in the 21st Century. 2014
18 +Despite the pronouncement of debate as an activity and intellectual exercise pointing to
19 +AND
20 +used to currently justify the living wages in under our contemporary moral parameters.
21 +
22 +====Therefore, the role of the ballot is to vote for the debater who takes the best action to improve conditions for marginalized groups. This requires state action, not just critical reflection- moving away from the state dooms the lefts’ critique to failure—we must work within the state without being statist, meaning if the neg alt isn’t a state policy I’m the only one with a risk of offense====
23 +**Connally 2k8 **~~William, Professor of Political Science at John Hopkins, Capitalism and Christianity, American Style, page numbers are at the bottom of the card.~~
24 +Before turning to possible strategies to promote these objectives, we need to face an
25 +AND
26 +were it to occur, would undermine rather than vitalize democratic culture.
27 +
28 +
29 +====Implications:====
30 +
31 +
32 +====A) Ceding the political leaves politics to the right; we probably don’t want Trump as president so we cant avoid politics entirely. B) Even if the state is implicitly bad, winning aff solvency shows a shift from its representations. C), State is necessary to affect material oppression in the AC.====
33 +
34 +
35 +====Thus I advocate that countries ought to prohibit the production of nuclear power ====
36 +
37 +
38 +==Contention 1: Indigenous sovereignty ==
39 +
40 +
41 +====Colonialism has been a implicit part of American patriotism – first they took away the land and forced indigenous peoples onto reservations and now they are taking away the remaining red sovereignty by bribing and abusing the indigenous land and reservations by placing dangerous nuclear power plants ====
42 +**Angel 91** Bradley (an international leader in the environmental health and justice movement, working with communities to stop pollution threats and to promote pollution prevention) "The Toxic Threat to Indian Lands" Greenpeace 1991 http://www.ejnet.org/ej/toxicthreattoindianlands.pdf DOA: 8.11.16//KAE
43 +Five hundred years ago explorer Christopher Columbus sailed from Europe, setting in motion a
44 +AND
45 +traditions and sovereignty becomes known, resistance by Indian people has spread rapidly.
46 +
47 +
48 +====Aboriginals and indigenous peoples face similar discrimination ====
49 +**Green 16 **Radioactive waste and the nuclear war on Australia's Aboriginal people Jim Green 1st July 2016 http://www.theecologist.org/News/news'analysis/2987853/radioactive'waste'and'the'nuclear'war'on'australias'aboriginal'people.html Dr James "Jim" Green is the national anti-nuclear campaigner with Friends of the Earth Australia and Australian coordinator of the Beyond Nuclear Initiative.~~1~~ Green is a regular media commentator on nuclear waste issues.~~2~~ He has an honours degree in public health from the University of Wollongong and was awarded a PhD in science and technology studies for his analysis of the Lucas Heights research reactor debates.~~3~~
50 +This isn't the first time that Aboriginal people in South Australia have faced the imposition
51 +AND
52 +This took place with no forewarning and no consultation with Aboriginal people.
53 +
54 +
55 +==== Prohibiting productin of nuclear power solves; eliminates the need for waste disposal and ====
56 +**Rozman 14** Izzati (Scholar and Author) "ARGUMENTATIVE REPORT SHOULD OR SHOULD NOT NUCLEAR POWER ENERGY BE BANNED GLOBALLY?" University Sultan Zainal Abidin, 2014 https://www.academia.edu/10107346/ARGUMENTATIVE'REPORT'SHOULD'OR'SHOULD'NOT'NUCLEAR'POWER'ENERGY'BE'BANNED'GLOBALLY DOA: 8.11.16//KAE
57 +Nuclear power should be banned globally not because of the availability of extensive reasons that
58 +AND
59 +depleting precious potable water resources and bring hazardous effect towards human and environment.
60 +
61 +
62 +==Contention 2: Japan ==
63 +
64 +
65 +====Nuclear power production entered Japan into an age of racial violence ====
66 +**Shrader-Frechette 1 **ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Volume 5, Number 3, 2012 a Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. DOI: 10.1089/env.2011.0045 Nuclear Catastrophe, Disaster-Related Environmental Injustice, and Fukushima, Japan: Prima-Facie Evidence for a Japanese ‘‘Katrina’’ Kristin Shrader-Frechette http://www3.nd.edu/~~kshrader/pubs/ksf-ej-2012-fukushima.pdf // KAE
67 +Besides poor people, prima-facie, pre-FD-accident evidence also
68 +AND
69 +DREI victims? To answer these questions, consider first the FD accident.
70 +
71 +
72 +====Environmental injustice threats following nuclear power disasters promote racist and classist culture divides====
73 +**Shrader-Frechette 2** ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Volume 5, Number 3, 2012 a Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. DOI: 10.1089/env.2011.0045 Nuclear Catastrophe, Disaster-Related Environmental Injustice, and Fukushima, Japan: Prima-Facie Evidence for a Japanese ‘‘Katrina’’ Kristin Shrader-Frechette http://www3.nd.edu/~~kshrader/pubs/ksf-ej-2012-fukushima.pdf // KAE
74 +Because Japan has few minorities, one might expect that its environmental-injustice
75 +AND
76 +that is able to assess the ultima-facie case for FD EI.
77 +
78 +
79 +==Contention 3: Masculinity ==
80 +
81 +
82 +====Nuclear power personifies a male structure perpetuating forms of masculine domination ====
83 +**Caputi 04**, Jane Goddesses and Monsters: Women, Myth, Power, and Popular Culture https://books.google.com/books/about/Goddesses'and'Monsters.html?id=C'r6meksRjUCandprintsec=frontcoverandsource=kp'read'button~~#v=onepageandq=nuclearandf=false 2004// KAE
84 +Feminist criticism has focused on exposing what Diana Russell (1989) calls "nuclear
85 +AND
86 +place, the mother’s body (Porter, 1991, 104-5).
87 +
88 +
89 +====Nuclear power is the symbol of masculinity – a political artifact that rapes the earth and creates a monopolization of control over the notion of femininity. Maintaining production of the atom bomb replicates the hierarchal chain of command and oppressive power structures that follow from nuclear power ====
90 +**Grint and Gill 95** The Gender-technology Relation: Contemporary Theory and Research By Keith Grint, Rosalind Gill//KAE
91 +nuclear technology is a useful example to illustrate some fundamental differences in approach to technology
92 +AND
93 +that it be controlled by a centralized, rigidly hierarchical chain of command.
94 +
95 +
96 +====Nuclear weapons support the Patriarchy and male dominations====
97 +**Canberra 84 **Published by Friends of the Earth (Canberra) in January 1984, ISBN 0 909313 27 X (pdf of original). A condensed version was published in Social Alternatives, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1986, pp. 9-16.//KAE
98 +Patriarchy - the collective domination of men over women - and other major social structures
99 +AND
100 +imagine the development of nuclear weapons in a society where feminine values predominated.
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1 +SEPTOCT - Stock Oppression 1AC
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1 +====Look at how brave these universities are! They’re promising increased diversity and making a quota system for disadvantaged groups—well I mean, sorta. They don’t actually ever do anything and usually sweep problematic issues under the rug, but it’s the thought that counts right? ====
2 +
3 +====The effect of university policies aimed at helping oppressed bodies vanishes in thin air, but the legal walls created stay in place. On-campus activists are put into a situation where they constantly make futile policies, while the university ignores its commitments====
4 +**Ahmed 1** (Sara Ahmed is formerly the director of a new Centre for Feminist Research (CFR) at Goldsmiths, Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths, and a scholar that writes on the intersection of queer theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and post-colonialism/ Ahmed, Sara. Article from her independent research blog: Evidence Posted on July 12, 2016 – no pg. numbers, DOA 1/28/17 KE)
5 +To have evidence ... to silence the oppressed
6 +
7 +**Ahmed 2** (Sara Ahmed is formerly the director of a new Centre for Feminist Research (CFR) at Goldsmiths, Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths, and a scholar that writes on the intersection of queer theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and post-colonialism, "How Not to Do Things with Words" Wagadu: A Journal of Transnational Women’s and Gender Studies, 2016, vol. 16, pp 2-6.//Accessed 9/15/16 KE)
8 +How can not doing ...under the appearance of "having brought."
9 +
10 +====White patriarchy relies on this institutionalized promise of happiness, wherein oppression becomes happiness as it circulates the image of the happy woman in the kitchen, the thankful woman with lower pay and the happy slave. The contours of these restrictions relegate the Other to death through a denunciation of desire and will. ====
11 +**Ahmed 2** (Sara Ahmed is formerly the director of a new Centre for Feminist Research (CFR) at Goldsmiths, Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths, and a scholar that writes on the intersection of queer theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and post-colonialism. Ahmed, Sara. The Promise of Happiness. Durham: Duke U Press, 2010. Pg. 63-64 //DOA 1/29/17 KE)
12 +It is Sophy’s imagination ... as the general or social will.*
13 +
14 +====Speech is an expression of will, but the voice of the oppressed is lost as it becomes docile. Violence becomes the corrective tool to reorient non-conforming bodies into obedience with oppressive rule systems "for their own good"====
15 +**Ahmed 3** (Sara Ahmed is formerly the director of a new Centre for Feminist Research (CFR) at Goldsmiths, Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths, and a scholar that writes on the intersection of queer theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and post-colonialism, Willful Subjects, Duke University Press, pp 63-67.//Accessed 2/2/17 KE)
16 +The story gives us a ...are kept alive by forgetting
17 +
18 +====~~advo text~~ Thus I affirm the resolution. The 1AC is a standing resistance against institutionalized happiness in university settings through the figure of the killjoy. ====
19 +
20 +====The 1AC is a personal killjoy manifesto against the oppressive structures of happiness in academic spaces. Our genealogy repeats the unhappy history of students and debaters alike, where every round forces the academic institution to continually take on the weight of its past. A manifesto allows us to use our personal experiences against the institution to reassert our wills and to collapse systems of violence. To be a killjoy is to be a political activist, a nonconforming queer, or the angry black woman. There can be joy in the killing of joy – our manifesto just determines a purpose of feminist flight. ====
21 +**Ahmed 4** (Sara Ahmed is formerly the director of a new Centre for Feminist Research (CFR) at Goldsmiths, Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths, and a scholar that writes on the intersection of queer theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and post-colonialism, Living a Feminist Life, "Conclusion II", 2017, Duke University Press, pp 254-257 //Accessed 2/9/2017 GKKE)
22 +We must stay unhappy ...them if you can bear them. 
23 +
24 +====The killjoy is the praxis point to resolve other violent power structures – our project of phenomenology expose the origin of violence and present a unified call to rage against points of oppression within politics. ====
25 +**Ahmed 5** Sara Ahmed "Feminist Killjoys (And Other Willful Subjects)" The Scholar and Feminist Online The Barnard Center for Research on Women Summer 2010
26 +Phenomenology helps us ...with which they get associated.
27 +
28 +==== ~~rotb text?~~ The role of the ballot is vote for the debater that best mobilizes unhappiness as a way to fight oppression. Our manifesto is an archive of happiness that extends beyond the resolution; the ballot becomes a form of affect – every reading of the 1AC elicits an rfd, decision, and refutation which create new impressions to shape identity to reclaim the liberatory potential of academic settings. ====
29 +**Ahmed 6 **(Sara Ahmed is formerly the director of a new Centre for Feminist Research (CFR) at Goldsmiths, Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths, and a scholar that writes on the intersection of queer theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and post-colonialism. Ahmed, Sara. The Promise of Happiness. Durham: Duke U Press, 2010. Pg. 19-20//DOA 1/29/17 KE)
30 +Every writer is first ... book is to make room.
31 +
32 +====This means that only the aff is effective to create a survival mechanism for the Other in the institution; silence creates complacency under the guise of "safety" which become less safe for the marginalized bodies in the institutions====
33 +**Rodruiguez 11** (Dalia Rodriguez,2011, Qualitative Inquiry, "Silent rage and the politics of resitstance: countering seductions of whiteness and the road of politization and empowerment" https://mail.google.com/mail/u/0/~~#inbox/155f2644f681f418?projector=1 ) pg. 594
34 +However, in addition to ...in the White academy.
35 +
36 +====Our manifesto points out the structures of complacency inside of institutions but critiques the normalcy of what it means to protest inside of it. Our refusal to be complacent with happiness in university settings redefines protest. Reshaping protest is crucial because institutions, like debate, discourage protest to maintain oppression and happiness. Speech is reregulated as the right to speak up. ====
37 +**Nguyen 14** Nicole Nguyen and R. Tina Catania The Feminist Wire August 5 2014 "On Feeling Depleted: Naming, Confronting, and Surviving Oppression in the Academy" thefeministwire.com/2014/08/feeling-depleted-naming-confronting-surviving-oppression-academy/
38 +We write because we ...strategize, to survive, to heal.
39 +
40 +====Our manifesto is a rupturing of happiness inside of debate's academic setting. Oppression in debate is perpetuated by the decisions community members make on a weekly basis. We look to real world implications in order to access debate’s liberatory potential. Thus, the role of the judge is to vote for the best resistance strategy for the oppressed. ====
41 +**Smith 13, Elijah. A Conversation in Ruins: Race and Black Participation in Lincoln Douglas Debate **
42 +It will be uncomfortable,...black students cannot escape.
43 +
44 +====Scenarios of nuclear war or extinction are deemed as the ‘good form of debate’ and help construct a space where violence against womxn is especially hidden and force female debaters to be complacent reading those positions. We are supposed to be nice debaters, more compelling, appropriate and sweet. Failure to do so creates more affect against the marginalized female body. Thus, the figure of the killjoy is uniquely good in debate. ====
45 +Bjork 92 (Rebecca, debater and university coach, "Symposium: Women in Debate: Reflections on the Ongoing Struggle", Effluents and affluence: The Global Pollution Debate, 1992")
46 +While reflecting on my ... real power that we have.
47 +
48 +====/slow down/ if that speech was too shrill for you then you’re part of the problem. The status of comfort in the activity deems feminine speech as shrill and disfavored. Women in debate become The Other in a new setting of the institution. Feminine participation and speech inside of debate is constantly suppressed to a relegated status of happiness and conformity. ====
49 +**Feinzig and Atyeo 11 **An Analysis of Gender Disparities in Lincoln-Douglas Debate Joshua Feinzig
50 +Natalie Atyeo
51 +Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School October 2, 2011 http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract'id=1957437
52 +Though the cited studies... in the debate community.
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1 +2017-05-10 01:14:47.0
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1 +====Violence against womyn in systems of white supremacy become internalized – marked identities begin to desire the purity of unmarked whiteness, and thus normalize their world view. Oppression thus becomes a condition of happiness – women are happy in the kitchen, they don’t want to go out to work. The ultimate form of white patriarchy is the oppressed desiring their own oppression, and we need to disrupt this naïve happiness.====
2 +**Ahmed 10** Sara, 1/1/2010. Professor of Race and Cultural Studies, Goldsmiths College, University of London. The Promise of Happiness. Duke University Press.
3 +It is Sophy’s imagination… right way, to be assembled.
4 +
5 +====People do not take women seriously when they speak – now you have to. Rearticulation serves as a method to sever the ties of the power within language and speech acts from its historically gendered and racialized history. Nagging and disrupting the white-male hegemonic institutions in the academy creates a disruption of the language game that exists in the academy. Only by antagonizing the principles of exclusion can we disorient the habitual spaces of whiteness which is a prerequisite to combatting other forms of oppression ====
6 +**Patton 04** (Dr. Tracey Owens Patton is the director of African American and Diaspora Studies and a professor in the Department of Communication and Journalism at the University of Wyoming. Dr. Patton's area of expertise is critical cultural communication and rhetorical studies.2004 Reflections of a Black Woman Professor: Racism and Sexism in Academia, Howard Journal of Communications, 15:3, 197-198, Accessed 6/27/16, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10646170490483629)
7 +Through my personal…common set of struggles.
8 +
9 +====Thus I affirm the entirety of the resolution. We affirm to open up a space to endorse the feminist kill joy and creates sites of discourse that disorients and reconfigures the social order. ====
10 +**Ahmed 10** Sara Ahmed "Feminist Killjoys (And Other Willful Subjects)" The Scholar and Feminist Online The Barnard Center for Research on Women Summer 2010
11 +To be unseated… We must learn.
12 +
13 +====Our affirmative approach as a foundational criticism is necessary to resolve the structural antagonisms that formulate law – even the most progressive left legal reforms recreate those problems and attempt to disentangle the complexities of gender issues - Our aff is a prerequisite ====
14 +**Brown and Halley 02 **Wendy Brown and Janet Halley, 2002 (Left Legalism/Left Critique, Wendy Brown is First Professor of Political Science at the University of California, Berkeley, where she is also affiliated with the Department of Rhetoric, and where she is a core faculty member in the Designated Emphasis in Critical Theory. Janet Halley is the Royall Professor of Law at Harvard Law School. p. 18-25)
15 +Left legalistic projects… that bred them.
16 +
17 +====The notion of free speech assumes that all voices are equally treated, when in reality power inequities shape who can speak what====
18 +**Boler 2k** Megan Boler (Professor in the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto and editor of Digital Media and Democracy), "All Speech is Not Free: The Ethics of "Affirmative Action Pedagogy," Philosophy of Education, 2000
19 +All speech is not … limiting dominant voices.
20 +
21 +====Oppression in debate is perpetuated by the decisions community members make on a weekly basis. We look to real world implications in order to access debate’s liberatory potential. Thus, the role of the ballot is to vote for the best resistance strategy for the oppressed. ====
22 +Smith 13, Elijah. A Conversation in Ruins: Race and Black Participation in Lincoln Douglas Debate
23 +It will be … students cannot escape.
24 +
25 +====Freedom of speech requires emancipation from social oppression – The aff challenge traditional notions of free speech from a negative individual right to an opportunity to subvert disempowerment. Instead of viewing freedom of speech as a negative individual right, we should understand it as the right to speak up.  ====
26 +**Hornsby 95** Jennifer Hornsby "Disempowered Speech" University of Arkansas Press Philosophical Topics, Vol. 23, No. 2, Feminist Perspectives on Language, Knowledge, and Reality (FALL 1995),
27 +Free speech, or …. will be indispensable.
28 +
29 +====If that speech was too shrill for you then that’s part of the problem. Feminine participation and speech inside of the debate space is constantly suppressed to a relegated status of happiness and conformity. ====
30 +**Feinzig and Atyeo 11 **An Analysis of Gender Disparities in Lincoln-Douglas Debate Joshua Feinzig
31 +Natalie Atyeo
32 +Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School October 2, 2011 http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract'id=1957437
33 +Though the cited … lower vocal pitches.
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1 +2017-05-10 01:15:43.0
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1 +Westwood AG
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1 +====Recognition necessitates an understanding of social standpoints of the oppressed and fluidity of identity ====
2 +**Butler 09 **Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? JUDITH BUTLER 2009 Pg. 8
3 +How then is … radically democratic results?
4 +
5 +====Language facilitates recognition as an instrument for compelling agency by allowing us to address one another and recognize existence. This allows for language to socially determine our existence and submits us to linguistic ontology.====
6 +**Butler 97** "Excitable Speech: A Politics of Performativity" by Judith Butler 1997 p. 5
7 +Language sustains the … of survivable subjects.
8 +
9 +====Ontology comes first because underpins all other impacts and is the basis for all politics====
10 +**Dillon 99 **(Michael, Professor of Politics at the University of Lancaster, Moral Spaces, p. 97-98)
11 +As Heidegger – himself… decision and judgment.
12 +analytics
13 +
14 +====And, our heuristic means we learn about the State without being it. Our framework teaches contingent, but engaged, middle grounds. No State pessimism or optimism bias for extreme Alts.====
15 +**Zanotti ’14** Dr. Laura Zanotti is an Associate Professor of Political Science at Virginia Tech.  Her research and teaching include critical political theory as well as international organizations, UN peacekeeping, democratization and the role of NGOs in post-conflict governance." Governmentality, Ontology, Methodology: Re-thinking Political Agency in the Global World" – Alternatives: Global, Local, Political – vol 38(4):p. 288-304,. A little unclear if this is late 2013 or early 2014 – The Stated "Version of Record" is Feb 20, 2014, but was originally published online on December 30th, 2013. Obtained via Sage Database.  KAE bracketed for grammar
16 +By questioning substantialist … and pessimistic activism.
17 +
18 +====Thus the standard is promoting critical social engagement. ====
19 +====I defend the resolution; Resolved: Public colleges and Universities in the United States ought not restrict any constitutionally protected speech. I defend the resolution as a general principle, so I don’t defend implementation.====
20 +====The squo presents an inherent problem; colleges restrict students ability to exercise their free speech. ====
21 +**Wheeler 16** , Lydia. "Colleges Are Restricting Free Speech on Campus, Lawmakers Say." TheHill. N.p., 02 Feb. 2016. Web. 06 Dec. 2016.
22 +In protecting students… use," he said.
23 +
24 +===Adv. 1 Activism===
25 +
26 +====The thesis of the affirmative is to open up free speech on campus to endorse methods like counter speech, which is a method of literal interrogation against harmful speech. Counter-speech works to combat hate speech—empirically verified. ====
27 +**Davidson ’16** The Freedom of Speech in Public Forums on College Campuses: A Single-Site Case Study on Pushing the Boundaries of the Freedom of Speech A Senior Project presented to The Faculty of the Journalism Department California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Bachelor of Science in Journalism By Alexander Davidson June 2016 
28 +All experts agreed… combat the issue.
29 +
30 +====The aff creates a culture of counterspeech. Censorship is the only alternative and it undermines empowerment and makes offensive speakers into martyrs, increasing the effectiveness of their arguments—my evidence is directly comparative.====
31 +**Strossen 95 **1995 Hate Speech and Pornography: Do We Have to Choose between Freedom of Speech and Equality Nadine Strossen New York Law School *** multiple examples come from public colleges at ASU and more. Examples cited in card ununderlined bc I wanted to be efficient sorry. Can point to it if you’d like
32 +The viewpoint-neutrality… it enfeebles them.4 P
33 +
34 +====Public colleges restricting free speech creates administrative intervention which destroys grassroot activism ====
35 +**Brown 95 **~~Brown (Wendy L. Brown (born November 28, 1955) is an American professor of Political Science at the University of California, Berkeley~~1~~ where she is also affiliated with the Department of Rhetoric, and where she is a core faculty member in the Designated Emphasis in Critical Theory.~~2~~), Wendy. "States of injury: Power and freedom in late modernity." (1995). //~~
36 +It is important … essays arc written.
37 +
38 +====Censorship hurts the students’ ability to protest offensive speech in the future – granting college admin the authority to police speech creates a precident of rights infringement ====
39 +**Milligan 15 **From Megaphones to Muzzles Free speech is under fire on college campuses – and the attacks are coming from students. By Susan Milligan ~| Staff Writer Nov. 25, 2015, http://www.usnews.com/news/the-report/articles/2015/11/25/from-megaphones-to-muzzles-free-speech-safe-spaces-and-college-campuses
40 +To me, an institution… free speech rages on.
41 +
42 +====When colleges determine that certain words or concepts shouldn’t be said, it locks the trauma of oppression in the words themselves. By freeing up speech, the Aff takes away the oppressor’s ability to use those words as a weapon.====
43 +**Butler 97**, Judith (Professor of Rhetoric and Comparative Literature, University of California-Berkeley), Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative, Routledge, 1997.
44 +Keeping such terms … is partially open.
45 +
46 +=== adv. 2 Education ===
47 +====Free speech restrictions prevent colleges from doing what they were made to do: namely, to educate tomorrow’s innovators, leaders, and activists. ====
48 +**Snyder 16** , Jeffrey Aaron, "Free Speech? Now That’s Offensive!" Inside Higher Ed, September 1, 2016.
49 +The Gallup survey… by its critics?
50 +analytics
51 +====Empirics prove that banning bigoted speech or acts doesn’t work. ====
52 +**Malik 12** , Kenan, "Why hate speech should not be banned," April 12, 2012.
53 +And in practice, … hate speech is involved.
54 +
55 +====The University is no longer open- it controls what knowledge can be disseminated- this is a new form of intolerance that has replaced previous intolerances- this prevents creating the best knowledge possible by limiting discussion and preventing idea exchange- this leads to extremity, polarization, and hinders politics, decision-making, and societal progress====
56 +**Nelson 15 **Nelson, Libby. Education Reporter Reporting on and explaining education. Previously: POLITICO Pro, Inside Higher Ed. Originally: Northwestern and Kansas City. "Obama on Liberal College Students Who Want to Be "coddled": "That's Not the Way We Learn"" Vox. Vox Media, Inc, 14 Sept. 2015. Web. 23 June 2016. http://www.vox.com/2015/9/14/9326965/obama-political-correctness.
57 +DES MOINES, Iowa —… , is all about."
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1 +====This is the Ghost Dance====
2 +**Elliot ’98** (Elliott, Michael A. "Ethnography, Reform, and the Problem of the Real: James Mooney's Ghost-Dance Religion." American Quarterly 50.2 (1998): 201-33. Web. Pg.1 ODA 9/1/16 //KAE+GK)
3 +
4 +The whole world is coming,
5 +A nation is coming, a nation is coming.
6 +The Eagle has brought a message to the tribe.
7 +The father says so, the father says so.
8 +Over the whole earth they are coming,
9 +The buffalo are coming, the buffalo are coming.
10 +
11 +====Gehres 01 explains====
12 +(Edward D. Gehres III*, "Visions of the Ghost Dance: Native American Empowerment and the Neo-Colonial Impulse," Hein Online, 2001, Online, Accessed 8/20/16, Pages 135-137. *Associate, Arnold and Porter, Washington, D.C.; J.D., 2001, University of Virginia School of Law; MA., 1996, The Graduate School of Political Management at The George Washington University; A.B., 1994, University of Michigan. //KAE+GK)
13 +
14 +In the midst of a time of great suffering following their confinement to reservations, Indian2 nations in the central plains region focused their fears of the past and their hopes for the future on a new religious movement known as the ghost dance.3 The leaders of this movement believed that great change and rebirth were on the horizon for Indian nations and that the spirits of the dead who had lost their lives in the battles with the white man would come back to life, that the abundance of the buffalo would return, and that the white man would vanish from their land.4 It was a ritual embodying a hope for peace and prosperity that revived spirituality and hope among Indian nations.5 The ghost dance was brought to the people by a Paiute holy man named Wovoka, and it came to the government's attention when the great warrior Sitting Bull left his retirement home at Standing Rock Agency and joined the Oglala Sioux ghost dancers. 6 The ritual emboldened the people of these Indian nations to show cultural pride, and the government, fearing insurrection, cracked down on the practice of the ghost dance religion. Misconstruing it as a dangerous uprising instead of as a rebirth of national confidence and self-awareness among Indian people, the federal government dispatched a reconstituted Seventh Cavalry - the same unit that suffered defeat at Custer's last stand - to quell the practice of the ghost dance. 7 Disaster ensued as the Seventh Cavalry killed Sitting Bull for supposedly resisting arrest, and then continued on to murder 350 Indian refugees at Wounded Knee Creek.8 The tragedy of the ghost dance and the resulting massacre at Wounded Knee should serve as an allegorical warning for today's relations between Indian nations and the United States government. In the thirty some years since Richard Nixon articulated the federal policy of Self-Determination for Indian tribes, 9 many tribal governments have been plagued by malfeasance or insufficient resources, but there have also been some striking successes.10 In some cases, Indian tribes have "re-invented" themselves as modern day sovereign governments reflecting both the efficiency and functionality of successful state governments and the vital traditions of their past. These tribes have leveraged the few economic development footholds available to them into successful economic development ventures aimed at establishing a lasting tribal infrastructure and creating a sustainable prosperity for the future.11 This potent combination of enterprise development and tribal sovereignty intertwined with the cultural history and traditions of the past is the "new ghost dance" for Indian nations.
15 +
16 +**====Landrum 11 continues ====**
17 +(*Cynthia Landrum Shape-shifters, Ghosts, and Residual Power teaches in the Native American Studies Program at Portland State University. She received her PhD in history from Oklahoma State University. Phantom Past, Indigenous Presence: Native Ghosts in North American Culture and History, Ed. Colleen E. Boyd and Coll Thrush, 2011, Nebraska Press, 261-262 *editorial chapters done by multiple authors, Landrum is one section //KAE+GK)
18 +
19 +In the 1992 film Thunderheart, a young man of Sioux ancestry, Ray Levoi, returns to his homeland as an FBI agent to help solve a string of murders of Indian activists. He learns that his ancestor Thunderheart was among those murdered by U.S. soldiers during the 1890 massacre at Wounded Knee. After a while Ray begins to have fitful dreams and visions of the event. In the dream he is "running with the Old Ones" and is shot in the back. The film implies that his biological ties to the community are enough to trigger a series of metaphysical events. His ancestors return to haunt him and to help provide knowledge that will aid him in his quest for truth. Thunderheart is not the first film in which Hollywood has attempted to tell the story of one of the worst incidents of genocide in the history of the U.S.-Indigenous relations, the Wounded Knee Massacre. However, the filmmaker takes a different approach as he blends history and familiar uncanny motifs in an effort to move the story toward its inevitable conclusion. For instance, it is implied that Jimmy Looks Twice, a fictional activist played bY the real-life American Indian Movement (AIM) member John Trudell, has the power to shape-shift into a deer. An elderly medicine man, Grandpa Reaches, has mystical connections to the ancestral past—he simply "knows" things. When Ray Levoi wistfully wishes that Maggie (a character reminiscent of the real-life Anna Mae Aquash), a female activist murdered during the course of the film, could be there in person to see the triumph of good over evil, Walter Crow Horse (played by Graham Greene) gently remind him: "She was, Ray, she was." The film blends fact and fiction in a way that underscores that, for modern-day Lakota people, Wounded Knee is a haunted location. On December 29, 1890, the Minneconjou Sioux Chief Big Foot and his "bedraggles band of staving Ghost Dancers" were camped along the Wounded Knee Creek, where they were slain by members of the U.S. Cavalry on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota.17 Big Foot and his band were pursued by the U.S. Cavalry soldiers, who feared a localized outbreak of the Ghost Dance religion.18 In the aftermath of the massacre, the ethnologist James Mooney acquired objects and personal belongings, including the Ghost Dance shirts worn by the deceased, and shipped them east to the Smithsonian Institution. Under the auspices of the Bureau of Ethnology, Mooney was commissioned to acquire and curate an ethnographic collection for the World’s Columbian Exposition and to continue his work among the Cherokee of Oklahoma, which initially involved several trips west between 1891 and 1894.19 In the aftermath of the Wounded Knee Massacre,20 the Northern Plains people were both militarily and spiritually disarmed. And as their lands were occupied, they were corralled onto reservations and their secular and religious objects were placed in storage units in large metropolitan museums. According to the AIM activist, modern Ghost Dancer, and adopted Lakota Sioux tribal member Robert Van Pelt (Siletz/Umatilla), the people parted with their objects only when forced to by economic hardship and constant duress form outside forces.21 In a sense, the Ghost dance religion 22 succeeded, because the dead did return, but not in the fashion in which the followers of the religion had anticipated.23 According to Sioux tribal members today, the Wounded Knee site is haunted by those who were gunned down in the snow on December 29, 1890. The activist Mary Crow Dog, in her memoir, references the spirits of the site as she describes the birth of her first child during AIM’s occupancy at Wounded Knee: Monday, just as the morning star came out, my water broke and I went down to the sweat lodge to pray. I wanted to go into the sweat but the Black Elk would not let me. Maybe there was a taboo against my participating, just as a menstruating woman is not allowed to take part in a ceremony. I was disappointed. I did not feel that the fact that my water burst had made me ritually unclean. As i walked away from the vapor hut, for the third time, I heard the ghostly cry and lamenting of a woman and child coming out of the massacre ravine. Others had heard it too. I felt that the spirits were all around me. I was later told that some of the marshals inside their sandbagged positions had also heard it, and some could not stand it and had themselves transferred.
20 +
21 +====The Lakota Dancers teach us that these looming ghosts, like the ones at Wounded Knee, are the power of Native populations and embedded in the land itself. As the United States attempted to exterminate Native populations, the landscape became painted with the spiritual hauntings of historical colonial domination ====
22 +**Landrum 11 ***Cynthia Landrum Shape-shifters, Ghosts, and Residual Power teaches in the Native American Studies Program at Portland State University. She received her PhD in history from Oklahoma State University. Phantom Past, Indigenous Presence: Native Ghosts in North American Culture and History, Ed. Colleen E. Boyd and Coll Thrush, 2011, Nebraska Press, 256-258 *editorial chapters done by multiple authors, Landrum is one section //KAE+GK)
23 +
24 +Stories of ghosts and hauntings are present in every society.1 The traditional conviction among most American Indian people is that ghosts can be malignant forces or act as guardian spirits. In particular, the Lakota believe that spirits or ghosts seen in daylight or at dusk can be dangerous and benevolent, depending on the context in which they are encountered. It is believed that benevolent ghosts can provide protection or guidance, or even become part of the landscape where a traumatic or powerful event occurred. Malevolent spirits, however, can cause spiritual, physical and/or emotional harm to the living.2 Stories of the uncanny or supernatural are actively reinforced by the oral historical narratives that emanate directly from tribal communities despite generations of assimilation, territorial conquest, spiritual colonialism, and academic and religious bigotry toward Northern Plains beliefs. Likewise, for many Lakota people, material objects that have been collected by museums still resonate with "power" despite the fact that they have been removed from their original context. As a result, such objects—and the new places they inhabit—may also become haunted. In this essay I will examine and compare Northern Plains beliefs about haunted locations, spirits, and objects in three contexts: the ghosts of victims massacred in 1890 at the Wounded Knee site in South Dakota; stories about the Deer People, shape-shifters that are half-deer and half-human; and hauntings that allegedly occurred around material objects displayed in the Great plains exhibition hall and storage areas at the National Museum of Natural History. Further, I will show that indigenous belief systems have survived despite cultural genocide, will demonstrate the hybridity of everyday beliefs as American Indians contribute to American popular culture, will show that Native beliefs are not hermetically sealed but rather engage the stories of colonial society as well, and, finally, discuss how these everyday/everywhere ghost stories are grounded in actual histories of colonialism. Traditional sacred sites, stories, and/or museum objects as vessels for "power"—both temporary and permanent—that connect the everyday world with the supernatural. The Northern Plains stores recorded here were told to me by individual consultants from various tribes, and museum employees and professionals who chose to remain anonymous. Some of the interviews are from as early as the fall of 1991, while others took place in the fall of 2008. However, I have worked with tribal members in the northern Plains since 1991. My work as a historian has caused primarily on American Indian government-sponsored boarding schools and the effect of the educational system upon the Northern Plains tribes. In addition to performing scholarly research, I have worked as a museum professional and have specifically dealt with the care of Native American museum objects. Over the years, individuals, native and non-Native alike, have shared with me stories of the uncanny—as these relate to the experience of boarding schools and policies of assimilation or as they relate to the frustration and anger many have felt concerning the removal of human remains and material objects form their original cultural settings. In both settings, many Indigenous people have experienced trauma, oppression, and uncertainty, the kinds of conditions that seem to elicit hauntings. This essay is the result of stories told to me while I worked in museum or was in the process of conducting research on other topics. And whether it was a conversation in passing or a formal interview, the information was shared with me in order to further illuminate how the dynamics among "power," sacred sites, traditional folklore, and/or material objects operate. Power for many American Indians, including the Lakota, is fixed in place. For Lakota people, sacred sites include the Black Hills, Bear Butte, Harney Peak, the Badlands, and Pipestone.3 Bear Butte has been a site for vision quests for the Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne for thousands of years. The eastern edge of the Black Hills in South Dakota, the area where the first peoples emerged, has been a focal point for religious activity involving sun dances, prayers, and fasting and prophecies. Pipestone also serves as an important religious site for many tribes, but in particular for the Dakota Sioux. For centuries, people have mined the red stone in eastern Minnesota in order to make the sacred pipe, pipe bowls, and other objects. Again, these sites serve as access points between the physical world and the realm of the spirits. Dreams, visions, and aberration are part of the lived reality of many Indian people, as are ghosts, spirits and witches. Indian traditionalists believe that those spiritual powers have control over their lives, and they use protective medicines and take precautions to keep themselves safe. It is a life where the metaphysical is more powerful than the physical world, and where certain ceremonies and important rites, performed at specific sacred sites, such as Bear Butte, are necessary for protection or blessings for individuals and communities as people seek deeper communion with those powers greater than themselves.4
25 +
26 +====The United States since its inception has been fascinated with Native spiritual connectivity to the Land—making the acquisition of Native Land the primary strategy for the first wave of colonization on Native peoples to forge a unified, assimilated, and nationalistic "American Identity"====
27 +**Kavanagh 11 **(*Sarah Schnyder Kavanagh pg. 154-158 Sarah Schneider Kavanagh's research focuses on the pedagogy of teacher education Postdoctoral Scholar at the University of Washington, "Haunting Remains: Educating a New American Citizenry at Indian Hill Cemetery", Phantom Past, Indigenous Presence: Native Ghosts in North American Culture/ made in 2011/ edited by Colleen E. Boyd and thrush *editorial chapters done by multiple authors, Kavanagh is one section // EBOOK DOA 9/1/16 KAE+GK)
28 +
29 +Although the American Revolution marked the birth of the new nation-state, it was not until several decades later that U.S. citizens realized that their experimental government could transform into a lasting republic. American victories in the War of 1812 revealed that a unified national culture and history could help the United States become a "nation among nations."12 In his discussion of the cultural roots of nationalism, Benedict Anderson writes that "nation-states… always loom out of an immemorial past, and, still more important, glide into a limitless future."13 And so as American citizens realized that their experiment in republican government had this potential for a "limitless future," they were faced with the daunting task of constructing for themselves an "immemorial past." Wince accomplishing this task would be no small feat, it is not surprising that the end of the War of 1812 marked the beginning of what Blanche Linden-Ward has termed the "American monument-building era"—how better to construct the immemorial than with monuments and memorials? This era was defined by an explosion of cultural and artistic production in support of the men and principles that had founded the nation: a carving of a new U.S. history into old American stone.14 In 1836 Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote, "Our age is retrospective. It builds the sepulchers of the fathers. It writes biographies, history, criticism. The foregoing generation beheld God and nature face to face; we, through their eyes."15 Although American history was being consciously constructed through many forms, including literature, painting, and oratory, it is no surprise that Emerson highlights the building of "sepulchers of the fathers" as the primary project of his era. Early-nineteenth-century scholars were quite aware of the implications of the fixation on tomb building. This fixation was made most visible through the Rural Cemetery Movement,16 an integral development in the conscious construction of U.S. history.17 In 1850 the creation of Indian Hill cemetery marked the spread of the mid-nineteenth-century monument-building fever into Middletown, Connecticut. The cemetery project, much like rural cemetery projects all along the east coast, was at its heart a patriotic enterprise.18 In his speech at the Indian Hill Cemetery dedication, Olin discussed how the site would instill patriotism in its visitors: "I trust I am no visionary, but I also give credit, in advance, to this enterprise for contributing something towards erecting a past for posterity—towards establishing a common centre for edifying remembrances and holy associations—a common ground where we of the present may wait to greet the men of the future, to commune with them and impart such lessons of wisdom as we have in store. I venture, also, to rely upon this improvement to strengthen, or even to create in some individuals and families much-needed local attachments, so essential an element of real patriotism."19 Olin’s focus on the patriotic purpose of the new cemetery echoes the sentiments of speakers at cemetery dedication ceremonies across the country during the nineteenth century.20 The rural-cemetery movement as a whole was informed by the needs of the monument-building era: the goal was to create national identity through the construction of an American past rooted in American soil. Such attempts at U.S. cultural production were often critiqued by European artists and scholars who agreed that architecture and art would be unsuccessful in creating a national culture and inciting true patriotism if the aesthetics used were borrowed and not developed "Indigenously."21 In spite of these critiques, the decades following the War of 1812 saw countless artistic attempts aimed at the construction of a national past. Linden-Ward claims that the "creation of public monuments and pastoral cemetery landscapes revealed Americans’ ability to adapt borrowed aesthetic forms to create their own usable past through self commemoration."22 However, nineteenth-century American must have agreed, at least in part, with European critiques. Even a brief glimpse into the relationship of the United States to both European and Native American populations makes clear that Euro-Americans "borrowed" much more than "aesthetic forms" to create a distinctly American past. They borrowed, appropriated, and abstracted native American identities in order to create a U.S. national identity and lay claim to American land. Without a claim to land upon which to anchor their nascent nation, Euro-Americans’ claim to nationhood was unsustainable. Richard Grusin argues, "The construction of American identity has always been inseparable from nature. Unlike European nations, whose identity derived from a common language, ethnic or racial heritage, religion, or cultural history, the identity of the United States of America as ‘nature’s nation’ was grounded in large part in the land itself."23 Because of this connection between land and nation, non-Natives have attempted to claim Indigenous identities to validate their own construction of national identity.24 The first claim is that Indigenous peoples belong to whites as a child belongs to a parent. Second, Indigenous identities have been claimed through the appropriation of Indigenous symbols, actions, and histories. These Euro-American claims to Indigenous identity manifest themselves in the histories and mythologies that Euro-Americans have created to stabilize their nation.25 From the American Revolution to the present day, examples abound of whites donning faux-Indian attire, yelping ultra-stereotyped war whoops, or engaging in stereotyped "Indian" rituals in moments of national crisis. In Playing Indian, Philip Deloria argues that these actions are associated with the white American need to dissociate with Europe and claim a different national heritage. He argues that whites covet what they have historically viewed as the Native connection to the land and its spirit.26 This is in part because a sense of place and an attachment to the land were prerequisites for the creation of a U.S. national identity. The Boston mayor Josiah Quincy stated in 1813 that "loyalty to place" was the nineteenth-century U.S. citizen’s primary connection with the nation.27 Ideas about the relationship between "loyalty to place" and national identity were not foreign to Middletown residents in the mid-nineteenth century. In fact, Stephen Olin spoke to the need for a loyalty to place in his speech at the 1850 opening of Indian Hill Cemetery. Discussing the creation of the cemetery, he expressed his "strong hope that ~~it~~ and similar improvements ~~that had~~ become so common in ~~the United States~~, ~~would~~ contribute, in some small measure, towards providing for one of the most urgent, though little appreciated wants for our great republic… the want of local attachments, and in so far as this essential element is concerned of love of country."28 Olin, like many nineteenth-century whites, was dedicated to the task of connecting his vision for the nation to the American landscape. In order to implant a national vision into the land itself, whites needed to grapp le not only with the history of American citizens and their forefathers but also with the Native peoples Indigenous to the land. In order for the United States to become a legitimate nation, it had to become, as one unknown writer said in 1828 "a perfect union of the past and present; the rigor of a nation just born walking over the hallowed ashes of a race whose history is too early for a record, and surrounded by the living forms of people hovering between the two."29 The drive for this perfect union of Native past with white present led whites toward two courses of action in their relations with Native peoples. First, if white Americans were to posit any claim over the land, they had to adopt the history, identity, and "spirit of the land" that belonged to the Native peoples Indigenous to the continent and glorify it, since it held such a central position in any sense of American nation.30 Second, through attempts at the ethnocide of Native American populations, whites tried to transform living societies into "the hallowed ashes of a race." As I will explore in the next section, this ethnocide was carried out both in the flesh and by the pen."
30 +
31 +====Since Wounded Knee, U.S. colonialism has entered the late stage—domination of the same kind but different form. The colonial spectre has possessed the nuclear industry, where the state disguises its imperialism in the form of development, coercing Native peoples to acquire and destroy the Land for nuclear waste dumping—this is the final conquest of the Frontier====
32 +**Angel 91** (Bradley an international leader in the environmental health and justice movement, working with communities to stop pollution threats and to promote pollution prevention) "The Toxic Threat to Indian Lands" Greenpeace 1991 http://www.ejnet.org/ej/toxicthreattoindianlands.pdf DOA: 8.11.16//KAE+GK)
33 +
34 +Five hundred years ago explorer Christopher Columbus sailed from Europe, setting in motion a series of events leading to the genocidal war on Indigenous people in whose land he arrived uninvited. Hoping to claim these already inhabited lands for European royalty, invading European armies plundered the civilizations they came upon. Untold millions of Indigenous people were killed and enslaved, their cultures violently attacked and their way of life changed forever. Five hundred years later, the exploitation and assault on Indigenous people and their land continues. Instead of conquistadors armed with weapons of destruction and war, the new assault is disguised as "economic development" promoted by entrepreneurs pushing poisonous technologies. The modern day invaders from the waste disposal industry promise huge amounts of money, make vague promises about jobs, and make exaggerated and often false claims about the alleged safety of their dangerous proposals. Frustrated by intense grassroots opposition and complex permitting procedures in other communities across the United States, the waste disposal industry and the U.S. government have set their aim on what they believe to be the most vulnerable segment of society: Indian people and Indian land. Today, hundreds of Indian Nations (Tribes) are being approached by both the waste disposal industry and the United States Government in search of new dumping grounds for the unwanted toxic, nuclear, medical and solid waste of industrial society. Hoping to take advantage of the devastating chronic unemployment, pervasive poverty and sovereign status of Indian Nations, the waste disposal industry and the U.S. government have embarked on an all-out effort to site incinerators, landfills, nuclear waste storage facilities and similar polluting industries on Tribal land. The waste industry strenuously denies that they are targeting Indian lands, and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Bureau of Indian Affairs officials downplay and underestimate the extent of industry’s efforts: the facts, however, contradict the waste industry’s claims and instead reveal a concerted effort to turn Indian lands into the dumping grounds for America’s poisons. Established companies such as Bechtel and Waste Tech (a subsidiary of Amoco Oil) have been joined by fly-by-night operators hoping to get rich quick by turning the last remaining land still controlled by Indian people into America’s new dumping ground. For example, lawyers for Bechtel have approached numerous tribes offering everything from hazardous and solid waste to nuclear waste dumps to nuclear power plants. A Waste Tech representative even admitted publicly during a meeting on the Kaibab-Paiute Reservation (located near the Arizona-Utah border) that their company hoped to site five commercial hazardous waste incinerators on five geographically distinct Indian Reservations in the United States. Waste Tech has publicly admitted to contacting about 15 tribes as of mid-1990, according to Ted Bryant, a Choctaw Cherokee Indian who is a middle man in some of the deals involving Waste Tech (reported in the St. Louis Post Dispatch, July 15, 1990). The overtures of the waste industry initially succeeded in making inroads with numerous tribal officials and governments. Many agreements were signed between company and tribal officials giving the initial go-ahead for proposed waste disposal facilities, usually without the knowledge or consent of the Tribal membership. As the truth about the serious threats posed by these projects to the peoples health, environment, culture, traditions and sovereignty becomes known, resistance by Indian people has spread rapidly.
35 +
36 +====The settler colonizes and dominates the Frontier to quarantine and then destroy the last remaining part of Native subjecthood—the Land. Colonial spatial strategies establish Natives as non-normative, unfit for life, and dead, reifying the power of metanarratives painting the Native subject’s inevitable fatality ====
37 +**Kavanagh 11 **(*Sarah Schnyder Kavanagh pg. 168-171 Sarah Schneider Kavanagh's research focuses on the pedagogy of teacher education Postdoctoral Scholar at the University of Washington, "Haunting Remains: Educating a New American Citizenry at Indian Hill Cemetery", Phantom Past, Indigenous Presence: Native Ghosts in North American Culture/ made in 2011/ edited by Colleen E. Boyd and thrush *editorial chapters done by multiple authors, Kavanagh is one section // EBOOK DOA 9/1/16 KAE+GK)
38 +
39 +The Frontier Myth provides an easily conceptualized spatial boundary between the civilized self and the primitive other. For nineteenth-century believers in the Frontier Myth, the primitive, Indian other was conceptualized always on the other side of the imaginary line of the frontier; the other always occupied other spaces. The myth was so pervasive that White Middletown residents began thinking of the Indian as beyond the frontier line even while Native peoples remained living and working in their city.65 All cemeteries take on the task of quarantining non-normative others, the dead, on the other side of real spatial boundaries. In the case of Indian Hill Cemetery, the Indian is quarantined alongside, and thus equated with, the dead. Through the drawing of boundaries to keep out "other peoples," both cemeteries and the frontier clearly illustrate the relationships of power that are the foundations of place. The cemetery and the frontier are intentionally constructed as physical manifestations of power. In "Of Other Spaces," Michel Foucault outlines a theory of heterotopias. Foucault’s theory of heterotopias approaches places themselves (and particularly the cemetery, which he uses as a primary example of a heterotopia) as social texts. Although Foucault does not mention the Frontier Myth in his analysis of heterotopic spaces, his heterotopia and the frontier have much in common. Understanding the commonalities between these two spaces is useful in understanding the relationship between frontier mythology and Indian Hill Cemetery. In his theory of heterotopias, Foucault analyzes how a space created to house the deviant constructs space for the "normal." A heterotopia is a place that incites thought about what society is, by portraying what it is not, a place that sparks imagination about what should be, by displaying that which deviates from the norm.66 It is, in effect, a boundary between two worlds that contains and orders deviance, presenting an idealized version of normative society. Foucault’s heterotopia and the frontier both exist as abstracted spaces of interaction not only between the normative and the deviant, but also between the past and the present. Similar to the frontier, heterotopias are "often linked to slices in time… ~~and~~ begin to function at full capacity when men arrive at a sort of absolute break with their traditional time."67 To inhabit a cemetery, permanent residents (the dead) must break with real time. Visitors, through viewing the living quarters of the long-since dead, experience a break in traditional time as well. Through these temporal breakages, the cemetery fulfills "the idea of constituting a place of all times that is itself outside of time and inaccessible to its ravages, the projects of organizing in this way a sort of perpetual and indefinite accumulation of time in an immobile place."68 The cemetery becomes the timeless reflection of the city it stands outside of, reflecting a universalized and timeless society back onto itself in idealized, yet inverted form: a "city of the dead" to promote life in a city of the living. Foucault describes the role of a heterotopia as creating "a space that is other, another real space, as perfect, as meticulous, as well arranged as ours is messy, ill constructed, and jumbled."69 The heterotopic cemetery here becomes an idealized version of the city, displacing the city itself and ordering its complications into an organized form. Blanche Linden-Ward argues that Mount Auburn Cemetery was constructed as a complementary and idealized "city on a hill" that would "offer lessons to the entire nation."70 In both Mount Auburn Cemetery and Indian Hill Cemetery, the "mess, ill constructed, and jumbled" nature of real life is idealized through the easily organized dead. History, struggle, controversy, societal structure, family, and race relations are displayed through the structure of the rural cemetery as timeless and structured, meticulously arranged and seemingly inevitable. Indian Hill Cemetery presents an idealized mirror image of a particular social structure in several specific ways. As can be seen on the 1850 map of the original Indian Hill Cemetery, almost all of the trails that meander across the hill have faux-Indian names. There are a few paths that are named after actual Wangunk people who had been proprietors of the site prior to 1850. For example, "Sowheage Ave." can be found on the southeastern corner of the hill. Some evidence indicates that this particular path marks the spot where the remains of Sowheage, a Wangunk leader, were found and exhumed, although this cannot be verified.71 Evidence indicates that the exhumation of Native bodies at Wune Wahjet was commonplace in the years preceding the creation of the cemetery.72 While the corporeal evidence of Wangunk people has been erased, evidence of what Robert Berkhofer has termed "the white man’s Indian"73 have been systematically moved into the site through faux-Indian path names, plaques at the entry to the cemetery that depict Noble Savage-like profiles, and the words of the Revs. Olin and Goodwin. Indian Hill Cemetery is bounded by its outermost path, which is called "Mattebeseck Ave." Mattebeseck, the Wangunk name for the city of Middletown, becomes the outer boundary of this mirror city, this city of the dead. In an ironic twist of fate, the Wangunk are given full ownership of Wune Wahjet, but this ownership comes with the price of forever being understood as the definition of death itself. The Wangunk city of Mattebeseck is remembered only by its own death and is re-created as an embodiment of inevitable death.
40 +
41 +====Thus, I advocate that we speak with the haunting Native specters as a strategy to exorcise nuclear colonial power.====
42 +
43 +====Haunting is the real strategy—hegemonic power structures are intrinsically spectral, meaning other starting points are flawed. As the material conditions of Native Americans have dwindled, the only viable option is to haunt the white subject to prevent Native erasure.====
44 +**Kavanagh 11 **(*Sarah Schnyder Kavanagh pg. 171-173 Sarah Schneider Kavanagh's research focuses on the pedagogy of teacher education Postdoctoral Scholar at the University of Washington, "Haunting Remains: Educating a New American Citizenry at Indian Hill Cemetery", Phantom Past, Indigenous Presence: Native Ghosts in North American Culture/ made in 2011/ edited by Colleen E. Boyd and thrush *editorial chapters done by multiple authors, Kavanagh is one section // EBOOK DOA 9/1/16 KAE+GK)
45 +
46 +According to Jaques Derrida "haunting belongs to the structure of every hegemony." Renee Bergland, in The National Uncanny: Indian ghosts and American subjects, has unpacked Derrida’s statement thusly: "Power is unreal, insubstantial, somehow imaginary. At the same time, of course, it is undeniably real. When we describe hegemonies as socially constructed, we mean that they are built on history, memory, fear and desire. They are made from the same things that ghosts are made from. Because the politics of the national, the racial, the classed and the gendered are the politics of memory and false memory, they are also, necessarily, the politics of spectrality." Paining Derrida and Bergland’s analysis of haunting with Richard White’s analysis of place (which states that places enact power and are constructed within hegemonic systems) leads me to claim that all places are haunted. Perhaps Indian Hill cemetery is a revealing site for an analysis of place as a haunting and haunted actor not because it is extraordinary, but because it is so ordinary, so commonplace. Through the haunting of Indian ghosts, through the construction of mythic Indian tropes, and through the presentation of national narrative mythologies, Indian Hill Cemetery haunts the very city it serves. The place (re)presents power structures that are at once real and imaginary, tangible and insubstantial, here and not here. These tropes, mythologies, and power structures have been constructed locally, nationally and internationally for hundreds of years, "built on history, memory, fear and desire." "they are made," Bergland observes, "from the same things that ghosts are made from." And, in turn, ghosts have been made from them. The names and structures at Indian Hill Cemetery are physical metaphors that transmit ideological narratives. Tombstones, landscape design, and the name of the site itself are all tangible structures that stand in for and arrange into a meticulous order the "messy, ill constructed and jumbled" concepts of nation and race. These structural metaphors are haunted by the messages they were created to impart. At Indian Hill, hauntings are complicated by the fact that the Indian Ghost (that Olin suggests haunts the site) is itself a constructed structural metaphor. As discussed above, the Indian Ghost is introduced into the discourse surrounding Indian Hill Cemetery as a metaphor for the inevitable death of Native peoples; it is a tool for Indigenous erasure. If the Indian ghost itself is a structural metaphor, and metaphors are haunted by the messages that they impart, then, at Indian Hill, haunting ghosts are themselves haunted. The verb "to haunt" is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as "of unseen or immaterial visitants." Thus, the creation of a metaphor is in fact the created of a haunted symbol. If a metaphor is defined by the simultaneous absence and presence of the "something else" that it is suggestive of, a metaphor then is a symbol that is constantly accompanied by that which is unseen or immaterial. Metaphors, symbols, and representations are all inherently haunted. What does the haunted nature of metaphor mean for a structure such as Indian Hill Cemetery, whose central metaphor is an Indian ghost? Could it be that the metaphoric ghost of Indian Hill is haunted not by the "imaginary or spiritual beings" but by narrative ideologies of nation, race, ethnocide, and removal? Could it be that at Indian Hill cemetery eve the ephemeral is haunted? In the speeches presented at the dedication ceremony, physical realities of history are treated as legend, and legends of lingering ghosts are treated as fact. The physical fact of Native existence is denied, while the ephemeral Indian ghost is ensconced. Indian Hill Cemetery was created to instill haunting citizenship into Middletown residents. In Olin’s words, the cemetery exerts "a real and powerful, though silent influence, in molding the character, and in exalting and purifying the sentiments of a people." This "silent influence’ is attained through a manipulation of "Indian-ness" in an attempt to construct non-Native American history and identity and also through an expansion of spatial frontier mythology in Middletown. The cemetery was a project aimed at expanding patriotism and active citizenship. The site’s founders approached this project by creating Indian ghosts and erasing Native bodies. Indian Hill cemetery was established in an attempt to ensure that, even as the visible remains of native people were removed, the special Indian, ghosted and forever haunting white citizenry, remains.
47 +
48 +====The haunting of ghosts bridge the gap between past and present and articulate what haven’t and cannot be expressed. The remembrance in Spectrality is key to disrupt and expose contradictions of narratives of continuity that prop up settler domination====
49 +**Richardson 05 **(Judith Richardson Possessions: The History and Uses of Haunting in the Hudson Valley page 26-27 September 26, 2005 Judith Richardson is Assistant Professor in the English Department at Stanford University DOA 8/31/16 //KAE+GK)
50 +
51 +These types and images are not unique to the Hudson Valley: they echo larger traditions and iconographies. Yet the fact that is many of the ghosts of the region are so inchoate or faded, so incapable of being identified, has aesthetic and historical implications. Embedded in these depictions of ghosts is a problem of communication, a los of essential information, an inability to articulate—something reflected further in the general silence of the Hudson Valley’s ghostly population. European ghosts often speak; New York area ghosts rarely do.67 Like the ghosts that Rip Van Winkle encounters in the Catskill recesses, who disturb him most by the fact that "they maintained the gravest faces, the most mysterious silence," Hudson Valley ghosts are often either dead silent or, when they do try to communicate, are heard as muffled or otherwise incomprehensible.68 And in many cases ghosts rob witnesses of the power of speech as well, defying description and eroding verbal expression.69 The indescribable, unspeakable aspects of ghosts may simply stem from crises of abysmal horror or mourning. Yet the inarticulacy that defines is many instance of haunting in the Hudson Valley also shadows problems of historical continuity, of perennial change as repeatedly and cumulatively obscuring the regional past and undermining historical understanding. It is telling that whereas Irving describes the ghostly crew of "The Storm-Ship" as chanting, a late-nineteenth-century retelling says they chant "words devoid of meaning to the listners."70 The fault, of course, lies not with the ghosts, but with the observers. That is, if traces of the past presented themselves, if waves of settlers and visitors suspected things had happened here, they were largely at a loss to identify them or to understand their implications.
52 +
53 +====The role of the ballot is to vote for the debater that best recognizes the presence of spectrality. The specter is A priori to any ethical obligation or practice as it is the origin of such ethics, to live in and of it demands a politics of memory be burdened upon the individual. Life and death are one; the small passageway connecting the two is the resting place of memory. ====
54 +**Derrida 94’ **Jacques Derrida, "Specters of Marx", 1994, P 17 http://m.friendfeed-media.com/411d68a9b887290f0f6a1621dad4ad2249ea7421//KAE
55 +
56 +But to learn to live, to learn it from oneself and by oneself, all alone, to teach oneself to live ("I would like to learn to live finally"), is that not impossible for a living being? Is it not what logic itself forbids? To live, by definition, is not something one learns. Not from oneself, it is not learned from life, taught by life. Only from the other and by death. In any case from the other at the edge of life. At the internal border or the external border, it is a heterodidactics between life and death. And yet nothing is more necessary than this wisdom. It is ethics itself: to learn to live-alone, from oneself, by oneself. Life does not know how to live otherwise. And does one ever do anything else but learn to live, alone, from oneself, by oneself? This is, therefore, a strange commitment, both impossible and necessary, for a living being supposed to be alive: "I would like to learn to live." It has no sense and cannot be just unless it comes to terms with death.2 Mine as (well as) that of the other. Between life and death, then, this is indeed the place of a sententious injunction that always feigns to speak like the just. What follows advances like an essay in the night-into the unknown of that which must remain to come-a simple attempt, therefore, to analyze with some consistency such an exordium: "I would like to learn to live. Finally" Finally what. If it - learning to live - remains to be done, it can happen only between life and death. Neither in life nor in death alone. What happens between two, and between all the "two's" one likes, such as between life and death, can only maintain itself with some ghost, can only talk with or about some ghost ~~s' entretenir de quelque fantomeJ. So it would be necessary to learn spirits. Even and especially if this, the spectral, is not. Even and especially if this, which is neither substance, nor essence, nor existence, is never present as such. The time of the "learning to live, a time without tutelary present, would amount to this, to which the exordium is leading us: to learn to live with ghosts, in the upkeep, the conversation, the company, or the companionship, in the commerce without commerce of ghosts. To live otherwise, and better. No, not better, but more justly. But with them. No being-with the other, no socius without this with that makes being-with in general more enigmatic than ever for us. And this being-with specters would also be, not only but also, a politics of memory, of inheritance, and of generations. If I am getting ready to speak at length about ghosts, inheritance, and generations, generations of ghosts, which is to say about certain others who are not present, nor presently living, either to us, in us, or outside us, it is in the name of justice. Of justice where it is not yet, not yet there, where it is no longer, let us understand where it is no longer present, and where it will never be, no more than the law, reducible to laws or rights.3 It is necessary to speak of the ghost, indeed to the ghost and with it, from the moment that no ethics, no politics, whether revolutionary or not, seems possible and thinkable and just that does not recognize in its principle the respect for those others who are no longer or for those others who are not yet there, presently living, whether they are already dead or not yet born.
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1 +==Part 1 is Framework.==
2 +
3 +
4 +====The standard is Maximizing Expected Well-being.====
5 +
6 +
7 +====First, values are meaningless until they’re experienced by us. ====
8 +**Harris 10** Sam Harris 2010. ~~CEO Project Reason; PHD UCLA Neuroscience; BA Stanford Philosophy~~. The Moral Landscape: How Science Can Determine Human Values."~~KAE
9 +
10 +Here is my (consequentialist) starting point: all questions of value (right and wrong, good and evil, etc.) depend upon the possibility of experiencing such value. Without potential consequences at the level of experience—happiness, suffering, joy, despair, etc. —all talk of value is empty. Therefore, to say that an act is morally necessary, or evil, or blameless, is to make (tacit) claims about its consequences in the lives of conscious creatures (whether actual or potential). I am unaware of any interesting exception to this rule. Needless to say, if one is worried about pleasing God or His angels, this assumes that such invisible entities are conscious (in some sense) and cognizant of human behavior. It also generally assumes that it is possible to suffer their wrath or enjoy their approval, either in this world or the world to come. Even within religion, therefore, consequences and conscious states remain the foundation of all values.
11 +
12 +====Second, government actions entail trade-offs among citizens that only UTIL can resolve.====
13 +**Woller 97** Gary Woller ~~BYU Prof., "An Overview by Gary Woller", A Forum on the Role of Environmental Ethics, June 1997, pg. 10~~KAE
14 +
15 +Moreover, virtually all public policies entail some redistribution of economic or political resources, such that one group's gains must come at another group's ex- pense. Consequently, public policies in a democracy must be justified to the public, and especially to those who pay the costs of those policies. Such justification cannot simply be assumed a priori by invoking some higher-order moral principle. Appeals to a priori moral principles, such as environmental preservation, also often fail to acknowledge that public policies inevitably entail trade-offs among competing values. Thus since policymakers cannot justify inherent value conflicts to the public in any philosophical sense, and since public policies inherently imply winners and losers, the policymakers' duty to the public interest requires them to demonstrate that the redistributive effects and value trade-offs implied by their polices are somehow to the overall advantage of society. At the same time, deontologically based ethical systems have severe practical limitations as a basis for public policy. At best, ~~Also,~~ a priori moral principles provide only general guidance to ethical dilemmas in public affairs and do not themselves suggest appropriate public policies, and at worst, they create a regimen of regulatory unreasonableness while failing to adequately address the problem or actually making it worse. For example, a moral obligation to preserve the environment by no means implies the best way, or any way for that matter, to do so, just as there is no a priori reason to believe that any policy that claims to preserve the environment will actually do so. Any number of policies might work, and others, although seemingly consistent with the moral principle, will fail utterly. That deontological principles are an inadequate basis for environmental policy is evident in the rather significant irony that most forms of deontologically based environmental laws and regulations tend to be implemented in a very utilitarian manner by street-level enforcement officials. Moreover, ignoring the relevant costs and benefits of environmental policy and their attendant incentive structures can, as alluded to above, actually work at cross purposes to environmental preservation. (There exists an extensive literature on this aspect of regulatory enforcement and the often perverse outcomes of regulatory policy. See, for example, Ackerman, 1981; Bartrip and Fenn, 1983; Hawkins, 1983, 1984; Hawkins and Thomas, 1984.) Even the most die-hard preservationist/deontologist would, I believe, be troubled by this outcome. The above points are perhaps best expressed by Richard Flathman, The number of values typically involved in public policy decisions, the broad categories which must be employed and above all, the scope and complexity of the consequences to be anticipated militate against reasoning so conclusively that they generate an imperative to institute a specific policy. It is seldom the case that only one policy will meet the criteria of the public interest (1958, p. 12). It therefore follows that in a democracy, policymakers have an ethical duty to establish a plausible link between policy alternatives and the problems they address, and the public must be reasonably assured that a policy will actually do something about an existing problem; this requires the means-end language and methodology of utilitarian ethics. Good intentions, lofty rhetoric, and moral piety are an insufficient though perhaps at times a necessary, basis for public policy in a democracy.
16 +
17 +====Third, prioritize existential risks – extinction is irreversible and destroys future value.====
18 +**Bostrom 12 ~~**Nick Bostrom. Faculty of Philosophy and Oxford Martin School University of Oxford. "Existential Risk Prevention as Global Priority." Global Policy (2012)~~KAE
19 +
20 +These reflections on moral uncertainty suggest an alternative, complementary way of looking at existential risk; they also suggest a new way of thinking about the ideal of sustainability. Let me elaborate. Our present understanding of axiology might well be confused. We may not now know — at least not in concrete detail — what outcomes would count as a big win for humanity; we might not even yet be able to imagine the best ends of our journey. If we are indeed profoundly uncertain about our ultimate aims, then we should recognize that there is a great option value in preserving — and ideally improving — our ability to recognize value and to steer the future accordingly. Ensuring that there will be a future version of humanity with great powers and a propensity to use them wisely is plausibly the best way available to us to increase the probability that the future will contain a lot of value. To do this, we must prevent any existential catastrophe. Even if we use the most conservative of these estimates, which entirely ignores the possibility of space colonization and software minds, we find that the expected loss of an existential catastrophe is greater than the value of 10~^16 human lives. This implies that the expected value of reducing existential risk by a mere one millionth of one percentage point is at least a hundred times the value of a million human lives. The more technologically comprehensive estimate of 10 54 human brain-emulation subjective life-years (or 10 52 lives of ordinary length) makes the same point even more starkly. Even if we give this allegedly lower bound on the cumulative output potential of a technologically mature civilization a mere 1 chance of being correct, we find that the expected value of reducing existential risk by a mere one billionth of one billionth of one percentage point is worth a hundred billion times as much as a billion human lives. One might consequently argue that even the tiniest reduction of existential risk has an expected value greater than that of the definite provision of any ordinary good, such as the direct benefit of saving 1 billion lives. And, further, that the absolute value of the indirect effect of saving 1 billion lives on the total cumulative amount of existential riskâ€"positive or negativeâ€"is almost certainly larger than the positive value of the direct benefit of such an action.10
21 +
22 +====AND, death is ontologically the worst evil since it destroys the subject itself.====
23 +**Paterson 3** Department of Philosophy, Providence College, Rhode Island (Craig, "A Life Not Worth Living?", Studies in Christian Ethics, http://sce.sagepub.com)KAE
24 +
25 +Contrary to those accounts, I would argue that it is death per se that is really the objective evil for us, not because it deprives us of a prospective future of overall good judged better than the alter- native of non-being. It cannot be about harm to a former person who has ceased to exist, for no person actually suffers from the sub-sequent non-participation. Rather, death in itself is an evil to us because it ontologically destroys the current existent subject — it is the ultimate in metaphysical lightening strikes.80 The evil of death is truly an ontological evil borne by the person who already exists, independently of calculations about better or worse possible lives. Such an evil need not be consciously experienced in order to be an evil for the kind of being a human person is. Death is an evil because of the change in kind it brings about, a change that is destructive of the type of entity that we essentially are. Anything, whether caused naturally or caused by human intervention (intentional or unintentional) that drastically interferes in the process of maintaining the person in existence is an objective evil for the person. What is crucially at stake here, and is dialectically supportive of the self-evidency of the basic good of human life, is that death is a radical interference with the current life process of the kind of being that we are. In consequence, death itself can be credibly thought of as a ‘primitive evil’ for all persons, regardless of the extent to which they are currently or prospectively capable of participating in a full array of the goods of life.81 In conclusion, concerning willed human actions, it is justifiable to state that any intentional rejection of human life itself cannot therefore be warranted since it is an expression of an ultimate disvalue for the subject, namely, the destruction of the present person; a radical ontological good that we cannot begin to weigh objectively against the travails of life in a rational manner. To deal with the sources of disvalue (pain, suffering, etc.) we should not seek to irrationally destroy the person, the very source and condition of all human possibility.82
26 +
27 +
28 +==Part 2 is Harms.==
29 +
30 +===Advantage 1 is Cyber.===
31 +
32 +
33 +====A major cyber-attack against nuclear power plants is coming now – security is weak.====
34 +**BBC 15** ("Global nuclear facilities 'at risk' of cyber attack"; 10-5-2015; BBC News; http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-34423419)KAE
35 +
36 +The risk of a "serious cyber attack" on nuclear power plants around the world is growing, warns a report. The civil nuclear infrastructure in most nations is not well prepared to defend against such attacks, it added. Many of the control systems for the infrastructure were "insecure by design" because of their age, it said. Published by the influential Chatham House think tank, the report studied cyber defences in power plants around the world over an 18-month period. Core breach Cyber criminals, state-sponsored hackers and terrorists were all increasing their online activity, it said, meaning that the risk of a significant net-based attack was "ever present". Such an attack on a nuclear plant, even if small-scale or unlikely, needed to be taken seriously because of the harm that would follow if radiation were released. In addition, it said "even a small-scale cyber security incident at a nuclear facility would be likely to have a disproportionate effect on public opinion and the future of the civil nuclear industry". Unfortunately, research carried out for the study showed that the UK's nuclear plants and associated infrastructure were not well protected or prepared because the industry had converted to digital systems relatively recently. This increasing digitisation and growing reliance on commercial software is only increasing the risks the nuclear industry faces. There was a "pervading myth" that computer systems in power plants were isolated from the internet at large and because of this were immune to the kind of cyber attacks that have dogged other industries. However, it said, this so-called "air gap" between the public internet and nuclear systems was easy to breach with "nothing more than a flash drive". It noted that the destructive Stuxnet computer virus infected Iran's nuclear facilities via this route. The story of Stuxnet In 2009, a malicious computer program called 'Stuxnet' was manually uploaded into a nuclear plant in Iran. The worm took control of 1,000 machines involved with producing nuclear materials, and instructed them to self-destruct. What made the world's first cyber-weapon so destructive? The researchers for the report had also found evidence of virtual networks and other links to the public internet on nuclear infrastructure networks. Some of these were forgotten or simply unknown to those in charge of these organisations. Already search engines that sought out critical infrastructure had indexed these links making it easy for attackers to find ways in to networks and control systems. Keith Parker, chief executive of the Nuclear Industry Association, said: "Security, including cyber security, is an absolute priority for power station operators." "All of Britain's power stations are designed with safety in mind and are stress-tested to withstand a vast range of potential incidents," he added. "Power station operators work closely with national agencies such as the Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure and other intelligence agencies to always be aware of emerging threats." In addition, said Mr Parker, the industry's regulator continuously monitors plant safety to help protect it from any outside threats. In June this year the International Atomic Energy Agency held its first international conference about the cyber threats facing plants and manufacturing facilities. At the conference Yukiya Amano, director of the IAEA, said both random and targeted attacks were being directed at nuclear plants.
37 +
38 +====Cyber-attacks cause power plant meltdowns and economic decline.====
39 +**Oppenheimer 16** (Andy Oppenheimer AIExpE MIABTI is Editor of CBNW (Chemical, Biological and Nuclear Warfare) journal and a consultant in CBRNE and counter-terrorism. He is author of IRA: The Bombs and the Bullets (Irish Academic Press, 2008) and of the CBRN and IEDs module courses for the St Andrews University Certificate in Terrorism Studies; "Not with a bang, but a meltdown – Andy Oppenheimer looks at cyber-attacks on nuclear power plants"; 2-29-2016; CBRNe Portal; http://www.cbrneportal.com/not-with-a-bang-but-a-meltdown-andy-oppenheimer-looks-at-cyber-attacks-on-nuclear-power-plants/)KAE
40 +
41 +And among the most dangerous is a cyber-attack on a nuclear power plant (NPP) or nuclear reprocessing plant such as Sellafield, due to the possible release of radiation from reactors or spent fuel ponds. A cyber-attack by terrorists on NPP systems and back-ups powering reactor cooling systems could trigger a meltdown incident similar to Fukushima Daichi in 2011. According to Director of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Gen. Yukiya Amano, in August 2015, "reports of actual or attempted cyber-attacks are now virtually a daily occurrence." As a state-launched attack, the Stuxnet worm set back Iran’s nuclear programme in 2009 by instructing 1,000 centrifuges to self-destruct – and has since escaped into programmes in other countries. In March 2015 the South Korean government accused the North Koreans of carrying out cyber-attacks in December 2014 on Korea Hydro and Nuclear Power (KHNP). Nuclear industry "barely grappled with cyber" In October 2015 a Chatham House report, Cyber Security at Civil Nuclear Facilities: Understanding the Risks, based on an 18-month study on cyber defences in NPPs, stated that UK’s plants and associated infrastructure "were not well protected or prepared because the industry had converted to digital systems relatively recently." Based on 30 interviews with senior nuclear officials at plants and in government in Canada, France, Germany, Japan, the UK, Ukraine and the US, the researchers found that risks were compounded by increased digitisation and the industry’s growing reliance on commercial software. There was a "pervading myth" that computer systems in power plants were isolated from the Internet at large and thought they were immune to the level of cyber-attacks affecting other industries. Virtual networks and other links to the public internet on nuclear infrastructure networks were not known to organization directors. Search engines that sought out critical infrastructure had indexed these links – making it easy for attackers to find ways into networks and control systems. The report also found the "air gap" between the public Internet and nuclear systems was easy to breach with "nothing more than a flash drive": Stuxnet infected Iran’s nuclear facilities via this route. Operational NPP technology engineers and cyber security personnel had difficulty communicating and many cyber security personnel were located off site, and many plants lacked preparedness for large-scale attacks outside office hours. Patricia Lewis, research director of Chatham House’s international security programme, said: "The nuclear industry is beginning – but struggling – to come to grips with this new, insidious threat." And the report author, Caroline Baylon, added: "Cyber security is still new to many in the nuclear industry. They are really good at safety and, after 9/11, they’ve got really good at physical security. But they have barely grappled with cyber." There was a "culture of denial" at many nuclear plants, with a standard response from engineers and officials being that because their systems were not connected to the internet, it would be very hard to compromise them. Accidents will happen… Past instances of accidental disruption include a 48-hour emergency shutdown in March 2008 in the Hatch NPP near Baxley, Georgia after an engineer installed a software update on a computer designed to synchronize data. According to a report filed with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, when the updated computer rebooted, it reset the data on the control system, causing safety systems to errantly interpret the lack of data as a drop in water reservoirs that cool the plant’s radioactive nuclear fuel rods. As a result, automated safety systems at the plant triggered a shutdown. Later that year the US Government Accountability Office (GAO) issued a scathing report about cyber security weaknesses at the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), the USA’s largest public power company and operator of three NPPs, including Browns Ferry, Alabama when a key safety system was overwhelmed with network traffic and nearly led to a meltdown in 2006. The GAO found that TVA’s Internet-connected corporate network was linked with systems used to control power production, and that security weaknesses pervasive in the corporate side could be used by attackers to manipulate or destroy vital control systems. Computers on TVA’s corporate network lacked security software updates and anti-virus protection, and firewalls and intrusion detection systems on the network were easily bypassed and failed to record suspicious activity. These incidents were eight years ago, with cyberattacks having mushroomed (pun not intended) since then, along with the rise of ISIL (Daesh, ISIS) and continued operations by al-Qaeda, each equally intent on ‘economic jihad’ – the destruction of Western economies. Taking down a NPP with subsequent collapse of systems and meltdown would be high on their list.
42 +
43 +====Economic decline causes nuclear war.====
44 +**Harris and Burrows 09** (Counselor in the National Intelligence Council, Member at the National Intelligence Council - Mathew J. Burrows, Global Trends 2025: A Transformed World—an unclassified report by the NIC published every four years that projects trends over a 15-year period, has served in the Central Intelligence Agency since 1986, holds a Ph.D. in European History from Cambridge University, and Jennifer Harris, Member of the Long Range Analysis Unit at the National Intelligence Council, holds an M.Phil. in International Relations from Oxford University and a J.D. from Yale University, 2009 ("Revisiting the Future: Geopolitical Effects of the Financial Crisis," The Washington Quarterly, Volume 32, Issue 2, April, Available Online at http://www.twq.com/09april/docs/09apr'Burrows.pdf, Accessed 08-22-2011, p. 35-37)KAE
45 +
46 +Of course, the report encompasses more than economics and indeed believes the future is likely to be the result of a number of intersecting and interlocking forces. With so many possible permutations of outcomes, each with ample ~~end page 35~~ opportunity for unintended consequences, there is a growing sense of insecurity. Even so, history may be more instructive than ever. While we continue to believe that the Great Depression is not likely to be repeated, the lessons to be drawn from that period include the harmful effects on fledgling democracies and multiethnic societies (think Central Europe in 1920s and 1930s) and on the sustainability of multilateral institutions (think League of Nations in the same period). There is no reason to think that this would not be true in the twenty-first as much as in the twentieth century. For that reason, the ways in which the potential for greater conflict could grow would seem to be even more apt in a constantly volatile economic environment as they would be if change would be steadier. In surveying those risks, the report stressed the likelihood that terrorism and nonproliferation will remain priorities even as resource issues move up on the international agenda. Terrorism’s appeal will decline if economic growth continues in the Middle East and youth unemployment is reduced. For those terrorist groups that remain active in 2025, however, the diffusion of technologies and scientific knowledge will place some of the world’s most dangerous capabilities within their reach. Terrorist groups in 2025 will likely be a combination of descendants of long established groups—inheriting organizational structures, command and control processes, and training procedures necessary to conduct sophisticated attacks—and newly emergent collections of the angry and disenfranchised that become self-radicalized, particularly in the absence of economic outlets that would become narrower in an economic downturn. The most dangerous casualty of any economically-induced drawdown of U.S. military presence would almost certainly be the Middle East. Although Iran’s acquisition of nuclear weapons is not inevitable, worries about a nuclear-armed Iran could lead states in the region to develop new security arrangements with external powers, acquire additional weapons, and consider pursuing their own nuclear ambitions. It is not clear that the type of stable deterrent relationship that existed between the great powers for most of the Cold War would emerge naturally in the Middle East with a nuclear Iran. Episodes of low intensity conflict and terrorism taking place under a nuclear umbrella could lead to an unintended escalation and broader conflict if clear red lines between those states involved are not well established. The close proximity of potential nuclear rivals combined with underdeveloped surveillance capabilities and mobile dual-capable Iranian missile systems also will produce inherent difficulties in achieving reliable indications and warning of an impending nuclear attack. The lack of strategic depth in neighboring states like Israel, short warning and missile flight times, and uncertainty of Iranian intentions may place more focus on preemption rather than defense, potentially leading to escalating crises. ~~end page 36~~ Types of conflict that the world continues to experience, such as over resources, could reemerge, particularly if protectionism grows and there is a resort to neo-mercantilist practices. Perceptions of renewed energy scarcity will drive countries to take actions to assure their future access to energy supplies. In the worst case, this could result in interstate conflicts if government leaders deem assured access to energy resources, for example, to be essential for maintaining domestic stability and the survival of their regime. Even actions short of war, however, will have important geopolitical implications. Maritime security concerns are providing a rationale for naval buildups and modernization efforts, such as China’s and India’s development of blue water naval capabilities. If the fiscal stimulus focus for these countries indeed turns inward, one of the most obvious funding targets may be military. Buildup of regional naval capabilities could lead to increased tensions, rivalries, and counterbalancing moves, but it also will create opportunities for multinational cooperation in protecting critical sea lanes. With water also becoming scarcer in Asia and the Middle East, cooperation to manage changing water resources is likely to be increasingly difficult both within and between states in a more dog-eat-dog world.
47 +
48 +===Advantage 2 is Biodiversity.===
49 +
50 +
51 +====Coastal nuclear power plants will fail. (Why?)====
52 +**Roulstone 16** Tony Roulstone 16 ~~(Tony Roulstone, ) China wants a fleet of floating nuke plants, CNN 5-10-2016~~ KAE
53 +
54 +While the barge can provide similar safety systems there many are questions whether these reactors will be safe on the seas. They will be exposed to the vagaries and the uncertainties known by seafarers and to extreme storms and waves — sinking of the barge is a possibility. Also, it could be harder to protect seaborne reactors – opposed to their land-based counterparts – from external threats such as the loss of off-site power or a terrorist attack. Maintenance, key to safe operation, will be much more difficult in remote locations. These are new and different hazards from those considered for land-based reactors. The crucial issues of flooding for nuclear reactors and the loss of power required for cooling were highlighted by the accident at Fukushima.
55 +
56 +
57 +====Power plants contaminate marine mammals – failure exacerbates this.====
58 +**NIRS 16** NIRS. "Top 11 Reasons to Oppose Nuclear Power". Web. http://www.nirs.org/nukerelapse/background/toptenreasons.htm. 8/9/16 KAE
59 +
60 +Nuclear Power reactors release radioactivity to the air and the water on an ongoing basis, even with no accident. These routine and intermittent releases of radioactivity are like a dirty secret, since they are quietly allowed by the federal regulator. It would not be possible to run the reactor without them. Such releases contribute to radiation exposures in communities both near and far from the site. Radiation standards are being consistently relaxed to allow older, leakier reactors to continue to operate. Coastal reactors have been shown to kill sea mammals and threaten the endangered sea turtle. The reactor requires massive volumes of cooling water, and those with a "once through" cooling system are the worst. About ½ of the 103 nuclear reactors currently operated in the US use a "once through" system, and could be upgraded.
61 +
62 +
63 +====Marine mammals are uniquely essential to biodiversity.====
64 +**Bohle 8 (**Robert Bohle, 25 years of experience writing for professional publications specializing in Oceanography, "The Effects of Ocean Pollution on Marine Mammals", Blue Voice Organization, March 2008, http://www.bluevoice.org/news'issueseffects.php)KAE
65 +
66 +What the study didn’t cover directly may be even more disturbing: marine mammals are suffering dramatic rises in devastating illnesses, such as nervous and digestive system problems, liver disease, contaminant-induced immunosuppression, endocrine system damage, reproductive malformations, and growth and development issues. Worse yet is the alarming growth in cancer cases. Many scientists around the world believe these illnesses are being caused by contamination of the ocean with man-made toxic chemicals. Because marine mammals are at the top of their food chain, the toxins in their food sources accumulates in their bodies, especially in their fatty tissues and breast milk. Toxins in plankton are consumed by small fish, which are in turn eaten by larger fish, which are eaten by even larger fish. Eventually marine mammals and humans, each higher up the food chain, eat the now-toxic fish, further concentrating the toxins. This bio-concentration is what causes high levels of toxins in dolphins, whales, and other marine mammals. Nine of the 10 species with the highest polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) levels are marine mammals. The Toxic Top Ten: bottlenose dolphin, orca. Risso’s dolphin, harbor seal, beluga, Mediterranean monk seal, common dolphin, gray seal, polar bear. The 10th is the Steller’s sea eagle. The declining health of ocean-going mammals, especially the increase in various cancers, sends an undeniable message to humans. Thus dolphins and other marine mammals are showing us our future – unless we change our ways. Marine mammals are sending an unambiguous message to humankind: clean up the toxic soup we live next to, swim in, and draw fish from, or pay a very high price in human lives.
67 +
68 +
69 +====Ocean Biodiversity is key to human survival.====
70 +**Englart 12** (member of environmental NGOs and community groups for 30 years in Australia, an editor and contributor with Australia Indymedia. Climate Indymedia http://takvera.blogspot.com/2012/01/biodiversity-crisis-habitat-loss-and.html)KAE
71 +
72 +Scientists meeting at the University of Copenhagen have warned that biodiversity is declining rapidly throughout the world, describing the loss of species as the 6th mass extinction event on the earth. The world is losing species at a rate that is 100 to 1000 times faster than the natural extinction rate, with the challenges of conserving the world's species larger than mitigating the negative effects of global climate change. The scientists and policymakers met last week in Copenhagen to discuss how to organise the future UN Intergovernmental Panel for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) - an equivalent to the UN panel on climate change (IPCC). The conference was arranged and hosted in cooperation with the Danish Ministry of Environment and took place at the University of Copenhagen, where more than 100 scientists and decision makers, primarily from EU countries were gathered. The conference concluded that dealing with the biodiversity crisis requires political will and needs to be based on a solid scientific knowledge for action to be taken to ensure a safe future for the planet. It is estimated that about 30,000 species go extinct each year, some three species per hour. This is not a new crisis. The World Conservation Union in 2004 reported on the Escalating global species extinction crisis. Two recent scientific papers have emphasised that Climate change and habitat loss threaten biodiversity, extinction rate underestimated. The oceans are also in imminent peril with Marine Extinction looming with Ocean Acidification increasing, with marine scientists warning in June 2011 that the Oceans at high risk of unprecedented Marine extinction, including Extinction of coral reef ecosystems. Caption: Territory size shows the proportion of species worldwide that became extinct between 1500 current era and 2004, that became extinct there. Five previous mass extinctions have occurred in the planet's history, the last time being 65 million years ago - the end of the age of dinosaurs. These previous extinction events were driven by global changes in climate and in atmospheric chemistry, impacts by asteroids and volcanism. The present event, the 6th mass extinction, is driven by a competition for resources between one species on the planet – humans – and all others. Accelerating habitat degredation and loss is the primary process. The process is worsened by the ongoing human-induced climate change which particularly impacts fragmented ecosystems. Human population is basically overpopulating the planet and driving species to extinction through destruction of native habitat and landuse conversion to industrial scale agriculture. Kevin J Gaston in a 2005 paper on Biodiversity and extinction: species and people (PDF) detailed that "The most important agent of change in the spatial patterns of much of biodiversity at present is ultimately the size, growth and resource demands of the human population...giving rise to levels of global species extinction largely unprecedented outside periods of mass extinction." Researchers have found that bird species most at risk are predominantly narrow-ranged and endemic to the tropics, where species have small ranges and are imperiled by human land use conversions. Most of these species are currently not recognized as imperiled. "Land conversion and climate change have already had significant impacts on biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. Using future land-cover projections from the recently completed Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, we found that 950–1,800 of the world's 8,750 species of land birds could be imperiled by climate change and land conversion by the year 2100." says the research paper on Projected Impacts of Climate and Land-Use Change on the Global Diversity of Birds published in PLoS Biology in June 2007. Another recent multi-author study has found that preservation of plant biodiversity provides a crucial buffer to negative effects of climate change and desertification in drylands. This is important as Dryland ecosystems cover 41 of the land surface of the Earth and support 38 of the human population. Scientists have recently calculated the velocity of climate change to be 27.3 km/decade on land, and 21.7 km/decade in the ocean. This rate of movement of thermal climate envelopes poses problems for species facing a high speed migration, or a difficult and abrupt adaptation or extinction. For terrestrial species this involves migration polewards or to a greater altitude. For species that live on the top of mountains, ecosystem islands in the sky, they face a grim future of adapting to a warmer environment or extinction as they compete with species moving up from lower altitudes. Species from the tropics with small ranges are particularly threatened. Professor Carsten Rahbek, Director for the Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, University of Copenhagen said "The biodiversity crisis – i.e. the rapid loss of species and the rapid degradation of ecosystems – is probably a greater threat than global climate change to the stability and prosperous future of mankind on Earth. There is a need for scientists, politicians and government authorities to closely collaborate if we are to solve this crisis. This makes the need to establish IPBES very urgent, which may happen at a UN meeting in Panama City in April."
73 +
74 +
75 +===Advantage 3 is Terror.===
76 +
77 +
78 +====Terrorists will hijack power plants and build nuclear weapons – security is weak.====
79 +**Macfarlane 16** (Allison M. Macfarlane directs the Center for International Science and Technology Policy at George Washington University, where she is Professor of Public Policy and International Affairs; "How to protect nuclear plants from terrorists"; Energy Post; April 26, 2016; http://www.energypost.eu/protect-nuclear-plants-terrorists/)KAE
80 +
81 +The risk of terrorists obtaining nuclear material to make a dirty bomb, or hijacking a nuclear plant, is real, observes Allison Macfarlane, a Professor at George Washington University and former Chair of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. According to Macfarlane, countries with nuclear plants need to improve security quickly before it’s too late. They can learn from the United States, whose nuclear power plants are among the most well-guarded facilities in the world. Article courtesy of The Conversation. In the wake of terrorist attacks in Brussels, Paris, Istanbul, Ankara and elsewhere, nations are rethinking many aspects of domestic security. Nuclear plants, as experts have long known, are potential targets for terrorists, either for sabotage or efforts to steal nuclear materials. Currently there are 444 nuclear power plants operating in 30 countries around the world and 243 smaller research reactors, which are used to produce isotopes for medical uses and to train nuclear engineers. The nuclear industry also includes hundreds of plants that enrich uranium and fabricate fuel for reactors. Some of these facilities contain materials terrorists could use to build a nuclear or "dirty" bomb. Alternatively, power plants could be "hijacked" to create an accident of the sort experienced at Chernobyl and Fukushima, sending clouds of radioactivity over hundreds of miles. At last month’s Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, D.C., representatives from 52 countries pledged to continue improving their nuclear security and adopted action plans to work together and through international agencies. Authorities investigating the Paris attacks discovered video surveillance footage of a Belgian nuclear official in the home of one of the Paris suspects But significant countries like Russia and Pakistan are not participating. And many in Europe are just beginning to consider physical security measures. From my perspective as a former nuclear regulator and now as director of the Center for International Science and Technology Policy at George Washington University, it is clear that nuclear plants are vulnerable to terrorist attacks. Physical and cyber threats It is not news that security is weak at many civilian nuclear power and research facilities. In October 2012, Greenpeace activists entered two nuclear power plants in Sweden by breaking open a gate and scaling fences without being stopped by guards. Four of them hid overnight on a roof at one reactor before surrendering the next morning. Just this year, Sweden’s nuclear regulatory agency adopted a requirement for armed guards and additional security measures at the plants. However, these upgrades do not have to be in place until early 2017. In 2014 French nuclear plants were plagued by unexplained drone overflights. And Greenpeace activists broke into the Fessenheim nuclear plant near the German border and hung a large banner from the reactor building. In light of the recent Brussels attacks, reports from Belgium are more alarming. In 2012 two employees at the country’s Doel nuclear power station left Belgium to fight in Syria. In 2014 an unidentified saboteur tampered with lubricant in the turbine at the same reactor, causing the plant to shut down for five months. And earlier this year authorities investigating the Paris attacks discovered video surveillance footage of a Belgian nuclear official in the home of one of the Paris suspects.
82 +
83 +
84 +====Terrorists have the capability and motivation – the threat is real.====
85 +**Cirincione 15** (Joe Cirincione is President of Plougshares Fund, a global security foundation. He is author of Nuclear Nightmares: Securing the World Before It Is Too Late, and is featured in the documentary film, Countdown to Zero. He is a member of the Secretary of State's International Security Advisory Board and the Council on Foreign Relations; " The Risk of a Nuclear ISIS Grows"; 10-7-2015; Huffington Post; http://www.huffingtonpost.com/joe-cirincione/the-risk-of-a-nuclear-isi'b'8259978.html)KAE
86 +
87 +It is hard to imagine a more terrifying prospect than an extremist group like ISIS armed with nuclear or radiological weapons. But as the Associated Press revealed this week, that possibility may be much closer than we would like to think. Over the past five years the FBI, working in conjunction with local authorities in Moldova, have interrupted four attempts made by nuclear smugglers to sell radioactive materials to Middle Eastern extremists, including ISIS. According to the AP, "the latest known case came in February this year, when a smuggler offered a huge cache of deadly cesium — enough to contaminate several city blocks — and specifically sought a buyer from the Islamic State group." ISIS has already shown its willingness to use chemical weapons against civilian targets, so there should be no question that if given the means and opportunity, they would do the same with nuclear or radiological weapons. As I have written before: The risks of ISIS getting a nuclear bomb are small. But they are not zero... it is impossible now for ISIS to build a nuclear bomb from scratch. Doing so would require large, industrial facilities to enrich uranium, billions of dollars and gigawatts of energy. But if they could get the highly-enriched uranium — about 100 pounds would do, about the size of a soccer ball — it is possible that they could assemble the equipment and small technical team to build the bomb.
88 +
89 +====Nuclear terrorism causes extinction.====
90 +**Myhrvold 14** (Nathan P: chief executive and founder of Intellectual Ventures and a former chief technology officer at Microsoft; Nathan was a postdoctoral fellow in the department of applied mathematics and theoretical physics at Cambridge University, and he worked with Professor Stephen Hawking. He earned a doctorate in theoretical and mathematical physics and a master's degree in mathematical economics from Princeton University, and he also has a master's degree in geophysics and space physics and a bachelor's degree in mathematics from UCLA, Strategic Terrorism: A Call to Action; cco.dodlive.mil/files/2014/04/Strategic'Terrorism'corrected'II.pdf)KAE
91 +
92 +Technology contains no inherent moral directive—it empowers people, whatever their intent, good or evil. This has always been true: when bronze implements supplanted those made of stone, the ancient world got scythes and awls, but also swords and battle-axes. The novelty of our present situation is that modern technology can provide small groups of people with much greater lethality than ever before. We now have to worry that private parties might gain access to weapons that are as destructive as—or possibly even more destructive than— those held by any nation-state. A handful of people, perhaps even a single individual, could have the ability to kill millions or even billions. Indeed, it is possible, from a technological standpoint, to kill every man, woman, and child on earth. The gravity of the situation is so extreme that getting the concept across without seeming silly or alarmist is challenging. Just thinking about the subject with any degree of seriousness numbs the mind. The goal of this essay is to present the case for making the needed changes before such a catastrophe occurs. The issues described here are too important to ignore. Failing nation-states—like North Korea—which possess nuclear weapons potentially pose a nuclear threat. Each new entrant to the nuclear club increases the possibility this will happen, but this problem is an old one, and one that existing diplomatic and military structures aim to manage. The newer and less understood danger arises from the increasing likelihood that stateless groups, bent on terrorism, will gain access to nuclear weapons, most likely by theft from a nation-state. Should this happen, the danger we now perceive to be coming from rogue states will pale in comparison. The ultimate response to a nuclear attack is a nuclear counterattack. Nation states have an address, and they know that we will retaliate in kind. Stateless groups are much more difficult to find which makes a nuclear counterattack virtually impossible. As a result, they can strike without fear of overwhelming retaliation, and thus they wield much more effective destructive power. Indeed, in many cases the fundamental equation of retaliation has become reversed. Terrorists often hope to provoke reprisal attacks on their own people, swaying popular opinion in their favor. The aftermath of 9/11 is a case in point. While it seems likely that Osama bin Laden and his henchmen hoped for a massive overreaction from the United States, it is unlikely his Taliban hosts anticipated the U.S. would go so far as to invade Afghanistan. Yes, al-Qaeda lost its host state and some personnel. The damage slowed the organization down but did not destroy it. Instead, the stateless al-Qaeda survived and adapted. The United States can claim some success against al-Qaeda in the years since 9/11, but it has hardly delivered a deathblow. Eventually, the world will recognize that stateless groups are more powerful than nation-states because terrorists can wield weapons and mount assaults that no nationstate would dare to attempt. So far, they have limited themselves to dramatic tactical terrorism: events such as 9/11, the butchering of Russian schoolchildren, decapitations broadcast over the internet, and bombings in major cities. Strategic objectives cannot be far behind.
93 +
94 +===Advantage 4 is Space.===
95 +
96 +
97 +====Countries are increasing their use of nuclear power for space missions.====
98 +**WNA 16** (World Nuclear Association; "Nuclear Reactors and Radioisotopes for Space"; February 2016; http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/non-power-nuclear-applications/transport/nuclear-reactors-for-space.aspx)KAE
99 +
100 +After a gap of several years, there is a revival of interest in the use of nuclear fission power for space missions. While Russia has used over 30 fission reactors in space, the USA has flown only one - the SNAP-10A (System for Nuclear Auxiliary Power) in 1965. Early on, from 1959-73 there was a US nuclear rocket programme – Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Applications (NERVA) – which was focused on nuclear power replacing chemical rockets for the latter stages of launches. NERVA used graphite-core reactors heating hydrogen and expelling it through a nozzle. Some 20 engines were tested in Nevada and yielded thrust up to more than half that of the space shuttle launchers. Since then, "nuclear rockets" have been about space propulsion, not launches. The successor to NERVA is today's nuclear thermal rocket (NTR). Another early idea was the US Project Orion, which would launch a substantial spacecraft - about 1000 tonnes - from the earth using a series of small nuclear explosions to propel it. The project was commenced in 1958 by General Atomics and was aborted in 1963 when the Atmospheric Test Ban Treaty made it illegal, but radioactive fallout could have been a major problem. The Orion idea is still alive, as other means of generating the propulsive pulses are considered. The United Nations has an Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA)* implements decisions of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) set up in 1959 and now with 71 member states. UNOOSA recognises "that for some missions in outer space nuclear power sources are particularly suited or even essential owing to their compactness, long life and other attributes" and "that the use of nuclear power sources in outer space should focus on those applications which take advantage of the particular properties of nuclear power sources." It has adopted a set of principles applicable "to nuclear power sources in outer space devoted to the generation of electric power on board space objects for non-propulsive purposes," including both radioisotope systems and fission reactors.
101 +
102 +====Nuclear power has a 10 failure rate in space missions.====
103 +**Grossman 15** (Karl Grossman is professor of journalism at the State University of New York / College at Old Westbury; "NASA's warning - SpaceX crash highlights dangers of nuclear power in space"; The Ecologist; 2nd July 2015; http://www.theecologist.org/blogs'and'comments/Blogs/2929123/nasas'warning'spacex'crash'highlights'dangers'of'nuclear'power'in'space.html)KAE
104 +
105 +That claim of no hazardous consequences is not true, as the late Dr. John Gofman, professor at the University of California at Berkeley, long maintained. Of the three US space nuclear accidents, the most serious was the fall back to Earth in 1964 of a satellite with a SNAP-9A plutonium system onboard. The satellite and plutonium system disintegrated in the fall, the plutonium was dispersed worldwide and caused, in Dr. Gofman's estimation, an increase in the global lung cancer rate. Dr. Gofman, an M.D. and Ph.D., co-discoverer of several radioisotopes, and was a pioneer in the earliest experiments with plutonium. A 10 failure rate in space nuclear power missions has also been the case for Russia and, before it, the Soviet Union. The worst Soviet space nuclear accident occurred in the fall in 1978 of Cosmos satellite 954, with an atomic reactor onboard, which disintegrated as it plummeted to Earth, spreading nuclear debris for hundreds of miles across the Northwest Territories of Canada. Despite the study's rosy history of space nuclear power, it also says "it may be prudent to build in more time in the development of schedule for the first launch of a new space reactor. Public interest would likely be large, and it is possible that opposition could be substantial." The explosion after launch Sunday from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida of a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket on a mission to deliver supplies to the International Space Station was an event again underlining the danger of using nuclear power on spacecraft. Officials were warning that "potentially hazardous debris could wash ashore." What if a radioisotope thermoelectric generator was onboard and plutonium was also dispersed? Or a nuclear reactor or atomic propulsion system, and an array of radioactive poisons rained down in the debris. US Representative Donna Edwards of Maryland, a member of the House Science, Space and Technology Committee, announced that "the launch failure this morning shows us once again that space is difficult - it requires near perfection." Inserting nuclear poisons into a danger-prone equation that "requires near perfection" - especially when it is unnecessary - is reckless, and the consequences are potentially devastating. Estimates in NASA's Final Environmental Impact Statement, for instance, of the cost of plutonium decontamination if there were an accident when the Curiosity rover was launched in 2011 to Mars were put at $267 million for each square mile of farmland, $478 million for each square mile of forests and $1.5 billion for each square mile of "mixed-use urban areas". It was powered with a plutonium-energized RTG, although previously NASA Mars rovers were able to function well with solar power. When the Cassini space probe was sent off to Saturn in 1997 - with three RTGs containing 72.3 pounds of Plutonium-238, the most plutonium ever used on a spacecraft - NASA in its Final Environmental Impact Statement said that if an "inadvertent reentry" of Cassini into the Earth's atmosphere occurred causing it to disintegrate and release its plutonium, "5 billion...of the world's population...could receive 99 percent or more of the radiation exposure." Noting that "technology frequently goes wrong", Gagnon of the Global Network Against Weapons and Nuclear Power in Space, says: "When you consider adding nuclear power into the mix it becomes an explosive combination. We've long been sounding the alarm that nuclear power in space is something the neither public nor the planet can afford to take a chance on."
106 +
107 +====Nuclear failure in space creates space debris, exponentially increasing the chance of collisions.====
108 +**Paradise 15** (Leo: Science Clarified, Encyclopedia of Science; "Does the accumulation of "space debris" in Earth's orbit pose a significant threat to humans, in space and on the ground?"; 1/23/15; Vol. 1)KAE
109 +
110 +Falling Debris and Exposure to Radioactivity Risks posed by orbital debris to people on the ground aren't limited to the heavy, twisted chunks of metal that fail to burn on reentry and fall from the sky. What very few people consider are the substances carried inside the various spacecrafts and rockets. Many times, these substances fall back to Earth. On January 24, 1978, after suffering a technical malfunction onboard, the Soviet satellite Cosmos 954 disintegrated over the Northern Territories in Canada. Scattered across a vast area were thousands of radioactive particles, pieces of the satellite's nuclear power core that survived reentry. The Soviets were unable to predict where Cosmos 954 might fall—they estimated somewhere between Hawaii and Africa; nor were they able to alter the satellite's flight path on reentry. Over 60 nuclear devices were launched into orbit so far. NASA will launch three more missions involving nuclear-powered crafts in the coming years. The army isn't saying much, but nuclear militarization of space is a known trend and an ongoing debate. What happens if a nuclear space rocket is hit by space debris? Nine nuclear spacecrafts have fallen back to Earth, so far. The Cosmos 954 incident was the worst one, and in fairness, some cores were never breached. But of the nuclear-powered spacecraft that fell to Earth, some released measurable radioactivity into the atmosphere. How do we know what effect the release of radioactivity into our atmosphere had on our health? Can we be sure that the next nuclear-powered craft that falls to Earth will once again miss a populated area, and that its core won't be breached? Nuclear material falling from orbit is not the only hazardous substance humans are exposed to when space debris falls to Earth. The village of Ploskoye, in Siberia, is directly under the flight path of Russian launch vehicles, and has been so for 40 years. When the first stage of the rockets separates, a large amount of unused rocket fuel explodes and rains down on the village. The fuel used in some of these rockets contains a substance known to cause liver and blood problems. The fuel coats crops and contaminates the water supply. Ploskoye and its neighbors report cancer rates 15 times higher than the national average. There is also an extremely high rate of birth defects in the area. The village doctor reports a spate of new patients after each launch, and schoolteachers report that children complain of various ailments in the days following launches. In the past five years, there hasn't been a healthy newborn in the village. The traditional space debris—fragments from the rockets—has killed cattle in the area. More often than not, accurate predictions cannot be made about landing sites of falling debris, unless the reentry is controlled from the ground. When the Russian Mars probe (another nuclear-power craft) fell to Earth in 1996, the U.S. Space Command targeted Australia in its predictions of the probe's landing site. The probe disintegrated over South America. Nor can we currently predict how much of a spacecraft will survive reentry. Intentional de-orbiting of some dead satellites, with the expectation that they will burn up on reentry, showed otherwise. According to the Center for Orbital and Reentry Debris Studies, "recent evidence shows that some portions…sometimes significant pieces, may survive reentry and pose a hazard to people and property on the ground." Some significant reentry events include a second stage of a Delta rocket that rained debris on Oklahoma and Texas on January 22, 1997. One woman was struck by a small piece of debris. Another Delta second stage reentered in early spring, 2000. Debris was found in a farm in South Africa. Increasing Risks and Dangers When considering the risk posed by orbital debris, one must look not only at the current state of debris environment in space, but also into future conditions in the same environment. In a report issued in 1999, the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space found that the probability of collisions between operational spacecrafts (including satellites) or between spacecraft and existing debris is increasing. To date, there is only one known case of a collision between cataloged man-made objects. In 1996, a fragment of an exploded Ariane upper stage rocket damaged the French satellite CERISE. As the report points out, the cause of many spacecraft break-ups in orbit is unknown, and might be the result of collision with orbiting debris. It is impossible to tell if the CERISE collision is truly a unique unfortunate event, or only the tip of the iceberg. The continuing launches of spacecraft compounds the existing problem. More objects in orbit mean a greater chance of collision. These collisions, in turn, will generate more fragments. The end result, if significant remedial measures are not implemented, will be an exponential increase in both the number of orbital debris and the number of resulting collisions. These resulting collisions, according to NASA, will be more and more likely to happen between larger objects, compounding the problem.
111 +
112 +====That risks miscalculation and nuclear war.====
113 +**Byrd 16** (Norman Byrd: a writer for Blasting News; "Space junk collisions could provoke armed conflict, Russian scientists warn"; Blasting News; 1/26/16; http://us.blastingnews.com/news/2016/01/space-junk-collisions-could-provoke-armed-conflict-russian-scientists-warn-00754097.html)KAE
114 +
115 +The increase in the amount of space junk orbiting the Earth has the potential to not only damage satellites, spacecraft, and devices already in orbit, but could potentially lead to war. A recent study posits that errant space junk colliding with satellites could easily be misconstrued as an attack and cause political friction, even provoke warfare. The Independent reported January 25th that a study conducted by scientists at the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow contends that debris orbiting the Earth poses a "special political danger" to operational satellites in that it would be difficult to determine the origin of the damaging impactor. In short, the impacted satellite's controller would not be able to ascertain if the impact had been caused by ordinary space junk or if it had come under attack. To make matters worse, as more space junk accumulates and more of the orbiting pieces collide, the amount of debris in orbit increases, thus increasing the likelihood of collisions with the aforementioned security-sensitive satellites. "The owner of the impacted and destroyed satellite can hardly quickly determine the real cause of the accident," astrophysicist Vitaly Adushkin explained in the study, which was published in Acta Astronautica. He noted that such uncertainty could very well "provoke political or even armed conflict between space-faring nations." To illustrate the potential dangers involved, the expansive ring of space junk has been accumulating since the space race began in the late 1950's. Over decades of test flights, satellite placements (both governmental and private sector), spacecraft launches, and various other space missions by literally dozens of national players, thousands of man-made objects have become part of the debris ring. Given intentional ejections, cast-offs, dead satellites, and inevitable collisions that come with pieces and particles moving at varying speeds in ever-decreasing orbits as Earth's gravity takes it toll, the number of pieces of space junk has soared. The Guardian noted that U. S. and Russian space agencies already monitor some 23,000 pieces of space junk measuring larger than 10 centimeters in diameter. One of those pieces of space junk, dubbed WT1190F or "WTF," had been tracked since 2013 and re-entered Earth's atmosphere in November. But estimates as to the true scope of orbiting fragments push the number into the trillions when considering smaller particles. At present, the fragments pose problems for orbiting satellites and the International Space Station, which celebrated 15 years as a living space habitat in November. A 2015 Russian Space Agency report noted that, in 2014, the station had to take evasive action against potentially harmful wreckage five times. Adushkin's warning follows an incident in 2013 when a Russian satellite was disabled by a piece of space junk created after China, using a missile to test its anti-satellite capabilities, shot down one of its own weather satellites in 2007. That demonstration produced an estimated additional 3,000 pieces of debris. Adushkin's research corroborates a 2011 NASA report that revealed the level of debris circling the Earth had reached a "tipping point," was increasing exponentially, and had become a danger to satellites and the ISS. The astrophysicist further warned that, unless something is done to clean up the ring of space debris, the dangers presented will only get worse due to the "cascade process" of ongoing collisions. space launches.
116 +
117 +==Part 3 is Solvency.==
118 +
119 +
120 +====Thus the plan: Countries should prohibit the production of nuclear power.====
121 +**Lucas 12** Caroline Lucas ~~an British politician, and since 2 September 2016, Co-Leader of the Green Party of England and Wales~~, 2-17-2012, "Why we must phase out nuclear power," Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/feb/17/phase-out-nuclear-power KAE
122 +
123 +The inherent risk in the use of nuclear energy, as well as the related proliferation of nuclear technologies, can and does have disastrous consequences. The only certain way to eliminate this potentially devastating risk is to phase out nuclear power altogether. Some countries appear to have learnt this lesson. In Germany, the government changed course in the aftermath of Fukushima and decided to go ahead with a previously agreed phase out of nuclear power. Many scenarios now foresee Germany sourcing 100 of its power needs from renewables by 2030. Meanwhile Italian citizens voted against plans to go nuclear with a 90 majority. The same is not yet true in Japan. Although only three out of its 54 nuclear reactors are online and generating power, while the Japanese authorities conduct "stress tests", the government hopes to reopen almost all of these and prolong the working life of a number of its ageing reactors by to up to 60 years. The Japanese public have made their opposition clear however. Opinion polls consistently show a strong majority of the population is now against nuclear power. Local grassroots movements opposing nuclear power have been springing up across Japan. Mayors and governors in fear of losing their power tend to follow the majority of their citizens.
124 +
125 +
126 +==Part 4 is the Underview.==
127 +
128 +====Nuclear power is unsustainable and will result in a catastrophe.====
129 +**Covino 13** (K: independent journalist, BA in English, nuclear power researcher; "The Most Unsustainable Energy Source on Earth"; 6-11-2013; HubPages; http://hubpages.com/politics/Unsustainable-Nuclear)KAE
130 +
131 +In our technologically developed society, concerns about electricity generation have become one of the central issues up for political debate. With so many sustainable ways to harness the latent energy of nature—wind, hydro, solar, etc.—it is concerning that so many environmentalists are still championing the nuclear cause. Many environmental celebrities, such as George Manbiot in his article "Why Fukushima Made Me Stop Worrying and Love Nuclear Power," seem to ignore the devastating effects that reactor meltdowns have already had around the world. It is not until you research into the real state of the nuclear industry that it becomes clear the public is not being told the whole story. In an interview with Alex Jones, critically acclaimed author and researcher Gar Williams stated, "I think reckless is built into the technology. There is no way…that an engineering plan that would create a nuclear reactor could be considered logically sustainable" (Infowars.com). The fact is that the high radiation output, as well as the tremendous heat produced, starts eating the facilities from the inside: in this sense they are (inadvertently) built to fail. Several experts claim these services are necessary to meet energy demands, but the shocker is that nuclear energy does not produce electricity directly. These facilities are designed to produce immense amounts of heat, turning water to steam that is then harnessed by large turbines. In reality this form of power generation only produces two things, a lot of heat and a lot of radioactive waste. There are plenty of ways to produce heat for steam energy that are much safer—geothermal energy, wind energy, hydroelectric energy, coal, natural gas—some which are more desirable than others. It is interesting to note that among all of the energy industries, there is only one that believes in global warming, and that is the nuclear industry. They argue that global warming can be solved with nuclear energy because it does not produce CO2 gasses; however, this argument falls on its head because CO2 emissions are still generated from building the plant, and extracting and refining the ore that the reactors use. In reality, the only time these facilities aren’t producing CO2 gasses (dismantling them also creates it) is when it is producing radioactive waste. Can this really be called sustainable? On top of the present dangers, the nuclear industry is nowhere near as efficient or profitable as it used to be, but the risks of relying on their facilities grow with every passing day. According to Euronuclear.org, there are a total of 435 nuclear energy installations currently operational around the world. Most of these reactors are thirty-five years old—and in some cases older—despite the fact that their operational lifespan was only supposed to be twenty-five to thirty years. (Nuclear Roulette) It is fairly evident that the nuclear industry is becoming collectively self-destructive, and their decision to keep outdated facilities running is placing the public at large in considerable risk. The meltdowns at Chernobyl, Three Mile Island and more recently Fukushima—as well as 50 other significant reactor accidents around the world—show that this form of energy generation has the potential to completely destroy the environment. "Nuclear Roulette," a New York Times Bestseller written by Gar Smith, reports that radiation levels have more than doubled what they were 60 years ago. (Nuclear Roulette) This spike in radiation is not strictly the cause of the nuclear industry, as the incidents at Nagasaki and Hiroshima have contributed pointedly, but the high number of facilities around the world pose a much more immediate threat than nuclear war. One need only look at the dirty history of the nuclear industry to understand that this form of energy creation is, as Gar Smith calls it, "a ticking time bomb" (Nuclear Roulette). Not only are faulty reactors kept running, but nuclear officials have plans to build additional old-design reactors, and keep those already built running in the meantime. It is clear they want to keep the old facilities operational because it’s a way to continue making money. The entire industry seems to be in denial of the fact that one day they are going to have to tear these plants down. This is a rather intimidating prospect, as disposing of the nuclear waste is a much more laborious process than I have time to elaborate on. What is clear without elaboration is that nuclear power poses on the biggest environmental threats to this planet. Unless something is done very soon (and I mean practically immediately), our species could face extinction level threats from the radioactive exposure these plants have built into their design. In Fukushima, three reactors exploded one after the other, and the fourth was significantly damaged to the point of massive leakage. Incidentally, the reactors that blew up in Japan were American made, and were designed and built by the GE Corporation. (Infowars.com) These facilities were inadvertently made to explode, all in the name of generating steam. There are currently 23 Fukushima design reactors in the United States, located at 16 sites in 12 states, a statistic that brings considerable fear about our future. Should a natural disaster similar in scope to the Fukushima incident strike one of these facilities, our planet would be thrown even farther down the radioactive rabbit-hole. However, it is not as easy as shutting the plants down tomorrow morning. The estimated cost of decommissioning all the reactors in the U.S. is ½ billion – 1 billion dollars, and ten years to isolate and dispose of the nuclear waste. (Nuclear Roulette) This is (presumably) what keeps the nuclear industry from taking on the challenge of decommissioning, but it has to happen. My only suggestion for making a change is to call and write your Senator and demand that nuclear power be banned, and the facilities shut down. Nothing short of our best effort will put a lid on this global threat, and it is increasingly clear the industry won’t do it by itself. The politicians in America took an oath to uphold the Constitution and to protect the interests of the American people; to deny citizens the voice they need to fight this dangerous practice is to stand in direct opposition to that oath. Please, help me save the world: call and write your government officials today.
132 +
133 +
134 +====Coal is phasing out – will be non-existent in the next two decades.====
135 +**Worldwatch 13** (The Worldwatch Institute works to accelerate the transition to a sustainable world that meets human needs; "Clean Energy Poised to Phase Out Coal and Avert Catastrophic Climate Change"; 2013; http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5948)KAE
136 +
137 +Washington, D.C.- New technologies will permit rapid decarbonization of the world energy economy in the next two decades, according to a new report from the Worldwatch Institute. These new energy sources will make it possible to retire hundreds of coal-fired power plants that now provide 40 percent of the world's power by 2030, eliminating up to one-third of global carbon dioxide emissions while creating millions of new jobs. "We no longer need to say ‘in the future' when talking about a low-carbon energy system," says Christopher Flavin, President of Worldwatch and author of the report, Low-Carbon Energy: A Roadmap. "These technologies-unlike carbon-capture facilities-are being deployed now and are poised to make the most carbon-intensive fossil fuels obsolete." Reducing dependence on fossil fuels will not only strike a defiant blow to the climate crisis, it will also act as an agent of recovery for an ailing global economy. Rebuilding the global energy system has the potential to create thousands of new businesses and millions of new jobs, starting immediately. Decarbonizing the energy economy requires several key steps: the accelerated deployment of solar, wind, and biomass power plants; integrating variable power sources with digital smart grids that are more flexible in their ability to balance demand and supply; developing the capacity to store energy economically; and selectively adding a new generation of efficient micro power plants that provide heat as well as reliable electricity when it is needed. The new report provides an overview of the state of renewable energy technologies as well as a roadmap charting their role in the transition to a low-carbon economy: Buildings consume about 40 percent of global energy and emit a comparable share of carbon dioxide emissions. With technologies available today, such as more-efficient lighting and appliances and improved walls and windows, the energy needs of buildings can be reduced by 70 percent or more, with the investment paid for via lower energy bills.
138 +
139 +
140 +====AFF gets RVIs – ====
141 +analytics
EntryDate
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +2017-05-10 01:26:14.0
Judge
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Berdugo
Opponent
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Lawmag
ParentRound
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +27
Round
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +5
Team
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Lake Travis Ehresman Aff
Title
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +SEPTOCT - Pootil 1AC
Tournament
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +St Marks
Caselist.RoundClass[21]
Cites
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +15
EntryDate
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +2017-05-10 01:13:10.0
Judge
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +all
Opponent
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +all
Round
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +2
RoundReport
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +only broken 1AC Round reports 1NC r2 - anthro k 1NC r3 - rotb spec coal DA 1NC r5 - espec consult natives PIC
Tournament
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Grapevine
Caselist.RoundClass[22]
Cites
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +16
EntryDate
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +2017-05-10 01:13:13.0
Judge
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +all
Opponent
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +all
Round
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +2
RoundReport
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +only broken 1AC Round reports 1NC r2 - anthro k 1NC r3 - rotb spec coal DA 1NC r5 - espec consult natives PIC
Tournament
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Grapevine
Caselist.RoundClass[23]
Cites
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +17
EntryDate
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +2017-05-10 01:14:45.0
Judge
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +any
Opponent
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +any
Round
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +2
RoundReport
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,3 @@
1 +R2 1NC intersectionality k academic freedom NC case turns - 1nr collapse to k turns
2 +R4 1NC Asexuality K 1NR collapse to floating word pik
3 +R6 1NC Wynter k white speech PIC case turns - 1NR collapse to PIC
Tournament
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Harvard
Caselist.RoundClass[24]
Cites
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +18
EntryDate
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +2017-05-10 01:15:41.0
Judge
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Nik Patel, Lu Barazza, Zachary Zertuche
Opponent
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Westwood AG
Round
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Semis
RoundReport
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,2 @@
1 +1NC - revenge porn PIC endowments DA chilling effect DA mills fw
2 +1NR - PIC Fw
Tournament
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Churchill
Caselist.RoundClass[25]
Cites
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +19
EntryDate
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +2017-05-10 01:16:05.0
Judge
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Any
Opponent
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Any
Round
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +1
RoundReport
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +This was for lay rounds oops
Tournament
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Churchill
Caselist.RoundClass[26]
Cites
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +20
EntryDate
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +2017-05-10 01:20:38.0
Judge
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Panel
Opponent
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Westwood SM
Round
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Quarters
RoundReport
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +disads that made me diSAD
Tournament
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Hendrickson TFA
Caselist.RoundClass[27]
Cites
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +21
EntryDate
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +2017-05-10 01:26:12.0
Judge
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Berdugo
Opponent
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Lawmag
Round
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +5
Tournament
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +St Marks
Caselist.RoundClass[28]
EntryDate
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +2017-05-10 01:39:10.684
Judge
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Panel
Opponent
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Anderson BM
Round
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +Semis
Tournament
... ... @@ -1,0 +1,1 @@
1 +SMHS TFA

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